Tonggu 通古 = Tungusic).通용 and Tong as barrel (龍, yong as dragon descendant of Yellow Emperor Korean GOGUYRYO
)개천에서 용 났다. (gaecheon-eseo yong nassda) This is said especially when a great man emerged out of the most unlikely background. This literally means that a dragon has emerged out of a brook. That is, what appears so unlikely happened strikingly in reality. It also suggests that a long river can be an analogy, embodiment, or at least birthplace of a dragon.이 논엔 용이 올라갔다. (i non-en yong-i ollagassda.) (The bold-faced idiom literally means "the dragon has risen".) There is no water in this paddy.
See also
한물 (hanmur, -mul) flood; prime, season (the best time)아무르강 (-江, amureu-gang) Amur RiverChinese: 黑龍江 (pinyin: Hēilóng Jiāng), "Black Dragon River"Manchu: Sahaliyan Ula, "Black River"Mongolian: Хара-Мурэн (Khara-Muren), "Black River"Russian: Амур (Amur), perhaps meaning "Black Dragon" or "North River (Waters)"Korean: (assumed) *가물 (gamur) probably from 가무- (gamu-) "black" + 물 (mur) "water, river" or 미르 (mireu) "dragon"古from 十 ‘ten’ + 口 ‘mouths’.
Han character
古 (radical 30 口+2, 5 strokes, cangjie input 十口 (JR), four-corner 40600, composition ⿱十口)old, classic, ancientused as a surname古Eumhun:Sound (hangeul): 고 (revised: go, McCune-Reischauer: ko)Name (hangeul): 예 (revised: ye, McCune-Reischauer: ye)여러(☞十) 대에 걸쳐 입(☞口)으로 전해온다는 뜻이 합(合)하여 ＇옛날＇을 뜻함. 十(십)과 口(구)를 합(合)한 모양으로十代(십대)나 입에서 입으로 전하다→낡다→옛날의 뜻이라고 생각하게 되었음The word Tungus derives from "Donki" which means "men" in Tungusic languages.[2] It has also been suggested that the word derives from "tungus" which means pig.[2]Some scholars[3] suggest derivation from the Chinese word Donghu (東胡, "Eastern Barbarians", c.f. Tonggu 通古 = Tungusic). This "chance similarity in modern pronunciation", writes Pulleyblank, "led to the once widely held assumption that the Eastern Hu were Tungusic in language. However, there is little basis for this theory.Tungusic peoples are the peoples who speak Tungusic languages. They inhabit Eastern Siberiaand are often contrasted with Mongols. The first European description of the Tungusic people was by the Dutch traveller Isaac Massa in 1612.[1]LanguagesStandard Chinese, ManchuReligionShamanism, Buddhism, Chinese folklore, Christianity, also many are Atheists or Agnostics[4]Related ethnic groupsEvenks, Nanai, Oroqen, Udege, Xibeand other Tungusic peoplesThe Manchus[note 1] (Manchu: ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: manju; simplified Chinese: 满族; traditional Chinese: 滿族; pinyin: Mǎnzú; Wade–Giles: Man3-tsu2) are members of an indigenous people ofManchuria[12] also known as red tasseled Manchus (Manchu: ᡶᡠᠯᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨᠰᠣᡵᠰᠣᠨᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: fulgiyan sorson manju; 红缨满洲) because of their traditional hat ornaments.[13][14] Manchus are the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples and are chiefly distributed throughout China, forming the fourth largest ethnic group and the third largest ethnic minority group in that country.[1] They can be found in 31 Chinese provincial regions. It is also the largest minority group in China without anautonomous region. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing has over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in Liaoning province and one-fifth in Hebei province. There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in China, such as Xinbin, Xiuyan, Qinglong, Fengning, Yitong, Qingyuan,Weichang, Kuancheng, Benxi, Kuandian, Huanren, Fengcheng, Beizhen[note 2] and over 300 Manchu towns and townships.[16]Tungusic peoples are the peoples who speak Tungusic languages. They inhabit Eastern Siberiaand are often contrasted with Mongols. The first European description of the Tungusic people was by the Dutch traveller Isaac Massa in 1612.[The word originated in Tunguska, a region of eastern Siberia bounded on the west by theTunguska river[2] and on the east by the Pacific ocean.The largest of the Tungusic peoples are the Manchu who number around 10 million. They are originally from Manchuria, which is now Northeast China but following their conquest of China in the 17th century, they have been almost totally assimilated into the main Han Chinese population of China. This process accelerated especially during the 20th century. The non-assimilated culture and language is still present in parts of northern China.Evenks live in the Evenk Autonomous Okrug of Russia. The Udege (Удэгейцы in Russian;ethnonym: удээ and удэхе, or udee and udehe correspondingly) are a people who live in thePrimorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai regions, also in Russia.2–3% of them are of Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y origin.Tungusic peoples are:EvenksEvensManchus (Jurchens)NegidalsNani peopleOroch peopleOrok peopleOroqen peopleUdege peopleUlchsXibeThe Manchu people in Fuzhou in 1915 A Manchu guard An Evenks wooden home Nani children dancing Sibo military colonists, 1885 An Udege family Tungus man in 1914 in Vorogovo, Siberia. A Manchu young man dressed in traditional clothesTungusic peoples are:EvenksEvensManchus (Jurchens)NegidalsNani peopleOroch peopleOrok peopleOroqen peopleUdege peopleUlchsXibeThe Manchu people in Fuzhou in 1915 A Manchu guard An Evenks wooden home Nani children dancing Sibo military colonists, 1885 An Udege family Tungus man in 1914 in Vorogovo, Siberia. A Manchu young man dressed in traditional clothes
LanguagesStandard Chinese, ManchuReligionShamanism, Buddhism, Chinese folklore, Christianity, also many are Atheists or Agnostics[4]Related ethnic groupsEvenks, Nanai, Oroqen, Udege, Xibeand other Tungusic peoplesThe Manchus[note 1] (Manchu: ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: manju; simplified Chinese: 满族; traditional Chinese: 滿族; pinyin: Mǎnzú; Wade–Giles: Man3-tsu2) are members of an indigenous people ofManchuria[12] also known as red tasseled Manchus (Manchu: ᡶᡠᠯᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨᠰᠣᡵᠰᠣᠨᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: fulgiyan sorson manju; 红缨满洲) because of their traditional hat ornaments.[13][14] Manchus are the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples and are chiefly distributed throughout China, forming the fourth largest ethnic group and the third largest ethnic minority group in that country.[1] They can be found in 31 Chinese provincial regions. It is also the largest minority group in China without anautonomous region. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing has over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in Liaoning province and one-fifth in Hebei province. There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in China, such as Xinbin, Xiuyan, Qinglong, Fengning, Yitong, Qingyuan,Weichang, Kuancheng, Benxi, Kuandian, Huanren, Fengcheng, Beizhen[note 2] and over 300 Manchu towns and townships.[16]The word Tungus derives from "Donki" which means "men" in Tungusic languages.[2] It has also been suggested that the word derives from "tungus" which means pig.[2]Some scholars[3] suggest derivation from the Chinese word Donghu (東胡, "Eastern Barbarians", c.f. Tonggu 通古 = Tungusic). This "chance similarity in modern pronunciation", writes Pulleyblank, "led to the once widely held assumption that the Eastern Hu were Tungusic in language. However, there is little basis for this theory.Tungusic peoples are the peoples who speak Tungusic languages. They inhabit Eastern Siberiaand are often contrasted with Mongols. The first European description of the Tungusic people was by the Dutch traveller Isaac Massa in 1612.[1]Manchu people
"Manchu" redirects here. For other uses, see Manchu (disambiguation).ManchuᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠNurhaciKangxi the GreatQianlong EmperorEmpress Dowager CixiPuyiKawashima YoshikoLao SheJohn FughLang LangTotal population10,430,0000.15% of global human population(estimate)10,410,585[1]0.77% of China's population(estimate)Regions with significant populations People's Republic of China10,410,585[1]↳ Hong Kong>288[2] Taiwan12,000[3]LanguagesStandard Chinese, ManchuReligionShamanism, Buddhism, Chinese folklore, Christianity, also many are Atheists or Agnostics[4]Related ethnic groupsEvenks, Nanai, Oroqen, Udege, Xibeand other Tungusic peoplesThe Manchus[note 1] (Manchu: ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: manju; simplified Chinese: 满族; traditional Chinese: 滿族; pinyin: Mǎnzú; Wade–Giles: Man3-tsu2) are members of an indigenous people ofManchuria[12] also known as red tasseled Manchus (Manchu: ᡶᡠᠯᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨᠰᠣᡵᠰᠣᠨᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ; Möllendorff: fulgiyan sorson manju; 红缨满洲) because of their traditional hat ornaments.[13][14] Manchus are the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples and are chiefly distributed throughout China, forming the fourth largest ethnic group and the third largest ethnic minority group in that country.[1] They can be found in 31 Chinese provincial regions. It is also the largest minority group in China without anautonomous region. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing has over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in Liaoning province and one-fifth in Hebei province. There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in China, such as Xinbin, Xiuyan, Qinglong, Fengning, Yitong, Qingyuan,Weichang, Kuancheng, Benxi, Kuandian, Huanren, Fengcheng, Beizhen[note 2] and over 300 Manchu towns and townships.[16]
HistoryEdit
Origins and early history
Further information: Sushen, Mogher, and Jurchen peoplethe location of Jurchen tribes at the end of Ming DynastyThe Manchus are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234) in China[17][18][19] but as early as the semi-mythological chronicles of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors there is mention of the Sushen,[20][21][22][23] a Tungusic peoplefrom the northern Manchurian region of North East Asia, who paid bows and arrows as tribute toShun[24] and later to Zhou.[25] The cognates Sushen or Jichen (稷真) again appear in the Shan Hai Jing and Book of Wei during the dynastic era referring to Tungusic Mohe tribes of the far Northeast.[26] In the 10th century AD the term Jurchen first appeared in documents of the lateTang dynasty in reference to the ethnic-Goguryeo state of Balhae.Following the fall of Balhae the Jurchens were vassals of the Liao dynasty. In the year of 1114,Wanyan Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and established the Jin dynasty.[27] His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai destroyed Liao and Northern Song and established the Jin Dynasty.[28] During the Jin Dynasty, first Jurchen scripts came into use in 1120s. It was mainly derived from Khitan script.[27]In 1206, the Mongols who were vassals to Jurchens rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan, led the Mongol troops to fight against Jurchens. The Jin dynasty could not withstand the Mongols' attack and was finally defeated by Ögedei Khan in 1234.[29] Under the Mongols' control, the Jurchens were mainly divided into two groups and treated differently: the ones who were born and raised in North China and fluent in Chinese were considered to be Chinese (Han); but the people who were born and raised in the Jurchen homeland (Manchuria) without Chinese-speaking abilities were treated as Mongols politically.[30] From that time, the Jurchens of North China increasingly merged with the Han Chinese, while those living in their homeland started to be Mongolized.[31] They adopted Mongolian customs, names[note 3] and the Mongolian language. As time went on, fewer and fewer Jurchens could recognize their own script.The Mongol domination of China was replaced by the Ming Dynasty in 1368. In 1387, the Ming defeated the Nahacu's Mongol resisting forces who settled in Haixi area[32] and began to summon the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute[33] At the time, some Jurchen tribes were vassals to theJoseon dynasty of Korea such as Odoli and Huligai.[34] Their elites served in Korean royal bodyguard.[35] However, their relationship discontinued by Ming, because Ming was planning to make Jurchens their protection of border. Korea had to allow it since itself was in Ming's tribute system.[35] In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to Yongle Emperor of Ming. Soon after that, Möngke Temür, chieftain of Odoli, went to tribute from Korea, too. Yi Seong-gye, the Taejo of Joseon requested Ming to send Möngke Temür back but rejected.[36] Since then, more and more Jurchen tribes presented tribute to Ming in succession.[33] They were divided in 384 guards by Ming.[35]In 1449, Mongol taishi Esen assaulted Ming Dynasty and captured Zhengtong Emperor in Tumu. Some Jurchen guards in Jianzhou and Haixi cooperated with Esen's action,[37] but more were also attacked by the Mongol invasion. A large number of Jurchen chieftains lost their hereditary certificates which had been granted by the Ming.[38] They had to present tribute as secretariats (中书舍人) with much less award from Ming court than they were heads of guards which was not joyful to the them.[39] Since then, more and more Jurchens started to find out Ming's declining power from Esen's invasion, especially Zhengtong Emperor's capture which directly caused Jurchen guards gradually went out of control.[40] Some tribal leaders even publicly plundered Ming's area, such as Cungšan[note 4] and Wang Gao. At about this time, the Jurchen script was officially abandoned.[42] More Jurchens adopted Mongolian as their writing language and fewer used Chinese.[43]
Manchu reign of China
Further information: Eight Banners, Manchu conquest of China, and Qing Dynastyan imperial portrait of NurhaciA century after the chaos started in Jurchen's land, Nurhaci, a chieftain of Jianzhou Left Guard, started his ambition as a revenge of Ming's manslaughter of his grandfather and father in 1583.[44] He reunified Jurchen tribes, established a military system called "Eight Banners" to organized Jurchen soldiers as "Bannermen" and ordered his scholar Erdeni and minister Gagai to create a new Jurchen script (later known as Manchu script) by referencing traditional Mongolian alphabet.[45]In 1603, Nurhaci was recognized as Sure Kundulen Khan (Manchu: ᠰᡠᡵᡝᡴᡠᠨᡩᡠᠯᡝᠨᡥᠠᠨ; Möllendorff: sure kundulen han, "wise and respected khan") by his Khalkha Mongol allies.[46] 13 years later (1616), he publicly throned and proclaimed himself Genggiyen Khan (Manchu: ᡤᡝᠩᡤᡳᠶᡝᠨᡥᠠᠨ; Möllendorff:genggiyen han, "bright khan") of Later Jin Dynasty (Manchu: ᠠᠮᠠᡤᠠᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ; Möllendorff: amaga aisin gurun[note 5], 後金) and then eventually launched his attack on Ming Dynasty.[46] Nurhaci moved the capital to Mukden after his conquest of Liaodong.[48] In 1635, his son and successorHong Taiji changed the ethnic group Jurchen (Manchu: ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ; Möllendorff: jušen) to Manchu.[49] A year later, Hong Taiji proclaimed himself the emperor of Qing Dynasty (Manchu: ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ; Möllendorff: daicing gurun[note 6]).[51] In 1644, the Ming capital Beijing was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor, committed suicide when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against Ming general Wu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchurian army. After defeated Li Zicheng, they moved the capital to Beijing (Manchu: ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ; Möllendorff: beging[52]) in the same year.[53]As a result of the conquest, almost all the Manchus followed regent prince Dorgon and Shunzhi Emperor to Beijing and mainly settled down there.[54][55] Few of them were sent to other places such as Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet as garrisons.[55] There were only 1524 Banner soldiers left in Manchuria at the time.[56] After the border conflicts with Russians, Qing's emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back to where they originally came from.[54] However, during the period of Qing, Beijing was always the only focal point of Manchus in political, economic and cultural aspects. TheYongzheng Emperor noted: "Garrisons are the places of stationed works, Beijing is their homeland."[57]While the Manchu ruling elite at the Beijing imperial court and posts of authority throughout China increasingly adopted Han culture, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime.[58] The emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various tribal people) in the central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means, in particular, restricting the migration of Chinese colonists to the region. This ideal, however, had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with skilled work force, and running trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Chinese convicts, workers, and merchants to the north-east.[59]However, this policy of artificially isolating the Manchus of the north-east from the rest of China could not last forever. In the 1850s, large numbers of the Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels. (For example, just the Heilongjiang province - which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang - contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of which merely 10-20% survived).[60] Those few who returned were demoralized and often exposed to opium addiction.[61] In 1860, in the aftermath of the loss of the "Outer Manchuria", and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement;[62] within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most of Manchuria's districts.
Modern days
Manchu noble ladies in 1900sAs the end of the Qing Dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers byChinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-Sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers.[63] This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity.[64]By the early years of the Republic of China, very few areas of China still had traditional Manchu populations. Among the few regions where such comparatively traditional communities could be found, and the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun (Manchu: ᠠᡳᡥᡡᠨ; Möllendorff: aihūn) District and the Qiqihar (Manchu: ᠴᡳᠴᡳᡤᠠᡵ; Möllendorff: cicigar) District ofHeilongjiang Province.[65]Until 1924, the government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen; however, many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names in shame to avoid persecution.[66] The official total of Manchu fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit to their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders.[67] On the other hand, in warlordZhang Zuolin's reign of Manchuria, a much better treatment than the situation of Manchus in mainland China was reported.[68][69] There were not any particular persecution towards Manchus.[68] Even the mausoleums of Qing's emperors were still allowed to be managed by Manchu guardsmen like it was in the past.[68] In this case, many Manchus joined Fengtian clique, such as Xi Qia who was a member of Qing's imperial clan.As a follow-up action of Mukden Incident, Manchukuo, a puppet state in Manchuria, was created by Imperial Japan which was nominally ruled by the deposed Emperor Puyi in 1932. Although the nation's name was related to Manchus, it was actually a complete new country for all the ethnicities in Manchuria[70][71] which had a majority Han population and was opposed by many Manchus like other ethnicities who fought against Japan in World War II, too.[37]In 1952, after the failure of both Manchukuo and the Nationalist Government (KMT), the newborn People's Republic of China officially recognized the Manchu as one of the ethnic minorities in 1952.[72] In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu.[73] The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule thus became more comfortable to reveal their ancestry, such as the writer Lao She, who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s.[74] Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority.[75] In fact, however, this growth was not due to natural increase, but instead people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu.[76]Eight-Banner system is one of the most important ethnic identity of today's Manchu people.[77]So nowadays, Manchus are more like an ethnic community which not only contains the descendants of Manchu bannermen, also has a large number of Manchu-assimilated Chinese and Mongol bannermen.[78][79][80][81] However, the ones who were mostly considered as Manchu bannermen in Qing Dynasty, such as Solon, Xibe and Nanai people, were separated as independent ethnic groups by the PRC government.[82]Since 1980s, the reform after Cultural Revolution, there has been a renaissance of Manchu culture and language among the government, scholars and social activities with remarkable achievements.[83] It was also reported that the resurgence of interest also spread among Han Chinese.[84]
Etymology of the ethnic nameEdit
The actual etymology of the ethnic name "Manju" is debatable.[85] According to Qing Dynasty's official historical record, the Researches on Manchu Origins, the ethnic name came fromMañjuśrī.[86] Qianlong Emperor also supported the point of view and even made few poems about it.[87]Meng Sen, a famous scholar of Qing study, agreed, too. On the other hand, he thought the name "Manchu" is also related to Li Manzhu, the chieftain of Jianzhou Jurchen.[88] It was just the most respectful appellation in the society of Jianzhou Jurchens in Meng's mind.[89]Another scholar, Chang Shan, thinks Manju is a compound word. "Man" was from the word "mangga" (ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ) which means strong and "ju" (ᠵᡠ) means arrow. So Manju actually means "intrepid arrow".[90]There are other hypothesis, such as Fu Sinian's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Zhang Binglin's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Isamura Sanjiro's "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe"; "etymology of mangu(n) river" and so on.[91][92]
PopulationEdit
Mainland China
Manchu male (right) on Fourth series of the RMB[93]Most Manchu people now live in Mainland China with a population of 10,410,585,[1] which is 9.28% of ethnic minorities and 0.77% of China's total population.[1] Among the provincial regions, there are two provinces, Liaoning and Hebei, which have over 1,000,000 Manchu residents.[1]Liaoning has 5,336,895 Manchu residents which is 51.26% of Manchu population and 12.20% provincial population; Hebei has 2,118,711 which is 20.35% of Manchu people and 70.80% of provincial ethnic minorites.[1] Manchu is the largest ethnic minority in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Beijing; 2nd largest in Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi andShanxi and 3rd largest in Henan, Shandong and Anhui,.[1]
Distribution
The Distribution of Manchu Population in People's Republic of China[1] RankRegionTotalPopulationManchuPercentagein ManchuPopulationPercentagein the PopulationofEthnic Minorities（%）Regional PercentageofPopulationRegional RankofEthnic PopulationTotal1,335,110,86910,410,5851009.280.77Total(in all 31 provincial regions)1,332,810,86910,387,95899.839.280.78G1Northeast109,513,1296,951,28066.7768.136.35G2North164,823,6633,002,87328.8432.381.82G3East392,862,229122,8611.183.110.03G4South Central375,984,133120,4241.160.390.03G5Northwest96,646,53082,1350.790.400.08G6Southwest192,981,18557,7850.560.150.031Liaoning43,746,3235,336,89551.2680.3412.202nd2Hebei71,854,2102,118,71120.3570.802.952nd3Jilin27,452,815866,3658.3239.643.163rd4Heilongjiang38,313,991748,0207.1954.411.952nd5Inner Mongolia24,706,291452,7654.358.962.143rd6Beijing19,612,368336,0323.2341.941.712nd7Tianjin12,938,69383,6240.8025.230.653rd8Henan94,029,93955,4930.534.950.064th9Shandong95,792,71946,5210.456.410.054th10Guangdong104,320,45929,5570.281.430.039th11Shanghai23,019,19625,1650.249.110.115th12Ningxia6,301,35024,9020.241.120.403rd13Guizhou34,748,55623,0860.220.190.0718th14Xinjiang21,815,81518,7070.180.140.0910th15Jiangsu78,660,94118,0740.174.700.027th16Shaanxi37,327,37916,2910.168.590.043rd17Sichuan80,417,52815,9200.150.320.0210th18Gansu25,575,26314,2060.140.590.067th19Yunnan45,966,76613,4900.130.090.0324th20Hubei57,237,72712,8990.120.520.026th21Shanxi25,712,10111,7410.1112.540.053rd22Zhejiang54,426,89111,2710.110.930.0213th23Guangxi46,023,76111,1590.110.070.0212th24Anhui59,500,4688,5160.082.150.014th25Fujian36,894,2178,3720.081.050.0210th26Qinghai5,626,7238,0290.080.300.147th27Hunan65,700,7627,5660.070.120.019th28Jiangxi44,567,7974,9420.052.950.016th29Chongqing28,846,1704,5710.040.240.027th30Hainan8,671,4853,7500.040.260.048th31Tibet3,002,165718<0.010.030.0211thActive Servicemen2,300,00022,6270.2423.461.052nd
Manchu autonomous regions
Manchu Autonomous Counties Manchu Autonomous CountyProvinceCityQinglong Manchu Autonomous CountyHebeiQinhuangdaoFengning Manchu Autonomous CountyHebeiChengdeWeichang Manchu and Mongol Autonomous CountyHebeiChengdeKuancheng Manchu Autonomous CountyHebeiChengdeXiuyan Manchu Autonomous CountyLiaoningAnshanQingyuan Manchu Autonomous CountyLiaoningFushunXinbin Manchu Autonomous CountyLiaoningFushunKuandian Manchu Autonomous CountyLiaoningDandongBenxi Manchu Autonomous CountyLiaoningBenxiHuanren Manchu Autonomous CountyLiaoningBenxiYitong Manchu Autonomous CountyJilinSipingManchu Ethnic Towns/Townships Manchu EthnicTown/TownshipProvinceAutonomous areaMunicipalityCityPrefectureCountyPaifang Hui and Manchu Ethnic TownshipAnhuiHefeiFeidongLabagoumen Manchu Ethnic TownshipBeijingN/AHuairouChangshaoying Manchu Ethnic TownshipBeijingN/AHuairouHuangni Yi, Miao and Manchu Ethnic TownshipGuizhouBijieDafangJinpo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic TownshipGuizhouBijieQianxiAnluo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic TownshipGuizhouBijieJinshaXinhua Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic TownshipGuizhouBijieJinshaTangquan Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiTangshanZunhuaXixiaying Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiTangshanZunhuaDongling Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiTangshanZunhuaLingyunce Manchu and Hui Ethnic TownshipHebeiBaodingYiLoucun Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiBaodingLaishuiDaweihe Hui and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiLangfangWen'anPingfang Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingAnchungou Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingWudaoyingzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingZhengchang Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingMayingzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingFujiadianzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingXidi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingXiaoying Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingDatun Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingXigou Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLuanpingGangzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeChengdeLiangjia Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeChengdeBagualing Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeXinglongNantianmen Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeXinglongYinjiaying Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLonghuaMiaozigou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLonghuaBadaying Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLonghuaTaipingzhuang Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLonghuaJiutun Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLonghuaXi'achao Manchu and Mongol Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLonghuaBaihugou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdeLonghuaLiuxi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdePingquanQijiadai Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdePingquanPingfang Manchu and Mongol Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdePingquanMaolangou Manchu and Mongol Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdePingquanXuzhangzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdePingquanNanwushijia Manchu and Mongol Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdePingquanGuozhangzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHebeiChengdePingquanHongqi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinNangangXingfu Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengLequn Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengTongxin Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengXiqin Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengGongzheng Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengLianxing Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengXinxing Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengQingling Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengNongfeng Manchu and Xibe Ethnic TownHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengYuejin Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinShuangchengLalin Manchu Ethnic TownHeilongjiangHarbinWuchangHongqi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinWuchangNiujia Manchu Ethnic TownHeilongjiangHarbinWuchangYingchengzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinWuchangShuangqiaozi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinWuchangLiaodian Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHarbinAchengShuishiying Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangQiqiharAng'angxiYouyi Daur, Kirgiz and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangQiqiharFuyuTaha Manchu and Daur Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangQiqiharFuyuJiangnan Korean and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangMudanjiangNing'anChengdong Korean and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangMudanjiangNing'anSijiazi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHeiheAihuiYanjiang Daur and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHeiheSunwuSuisheng Manchu Ethnic TownHeilongjiangSuihuaBeilinYong'an Manchu Ethnic TownHeilongjiangSuihuaBeilinHongqi Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangSuihuaBeilinHuiqi Manchu Ethnic TownHeilongjiangSuihuaWangkuiXiangbai Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangSuihuaWangkuiLingshan Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangSuihuaWangkuiFuxing Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangHegangSuibinChengfu Korean and Manchu Ethnic TownshipHeilongjiangShuangyashanYouyiLongshan Manchu Ethnic TownshipJilinSipingGongzhulingErshijiazi Manchu Ethnic TownJilinSipingGongzhulingSanjiazi Manchu Ethnic TownshipJilinYanbianHunchunYangpao Manchu Ethnic TownshipJilinYanbianHunchunWulajie Manchu Ethnic TownJilinJilin CityLongtanDakouqin Manchu Ethnic TownJilinJilin CityYongjiLiangjiazi Manchu Ethnic TownshipJilinJilin CityYongjiJinjia Manchu Ethnic TownshipJilinJilin CityYongjiTuchengzi Manchu and Korean Ethnic TownshipJilinJilin CityYongjiJindou Korean and Manchu Ethnic TownshipJilinTonghuaTonghua CountyDaquanyuan Korean and Manchu Ethnic TownshipJilinTonghuaTonghua CountyXiaoyang Manchu and Korean Ethnic TownshipJilinTonghuaMeihekouSanhe Manchu and Korean Ethnic TownshipJilinLiaoyuanDongfeng CountyMantang Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningShenyangDonglingLiushutun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningShenyangKangpingShajintai Mongol and Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningShenyangKangpingDongsheng Manchu and Mongol Ethnic TownshipLiaoningShenyangKangpingLiangguantun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningShenyangKangpingShihe Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningDalianJinzhouQidingshan Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianJinzhouTaling Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianZhuangheGaoling Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianZhuangheGuiyunhua Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianZhuangheSanjiashan Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianZhuangheYangjia Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianWafangdianSantai Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianWafangdianLaohutun Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDalianWafangdianDagushan Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningAnshanQianshanSongsantaizi Korean and Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningAnshanQianshanLagu Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningFushunFushun CountyTangtu Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningFushunFushun CountySishanling Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningBenxiNanfenXiamatang Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningBenxiNanfenHuolianzhai Hui and Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningBenxiXihuHelong Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningDandongDonggangLongwangmiao Manchu and Xibe Ethnic TownLiaoningDandongDonggangJuliangtun Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiJiudaoling Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiDizangsi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiHongqiangzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiLiulonggou Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiShaohuyingzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiDadingpu Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiToutai Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiToudaohe Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiChefang Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouYiWuliangdian Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningJinzhouYiBaichanmen Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningJinzhouHeishanZhen'an Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouHeishanWendilou Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningJinzhouLinghaiYouwei Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningJinzhouLinghaiEast Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic TownLiaoningFuxinZhangwuWest Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic TownLiaoningFuxinZhangwuJidongyu Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningLiaoyangLiaoyang CountyShuiquan Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningLiaoyangLiaoyang CountyTianshui Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningLiaoyangLiaoyang CountyQuantou Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningTielingChangtu CountyBabaotun Manchu, Xibe and Korean Ethnic TownLiaoningTielingKaiyuanHuangqizhai Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingKaiyuanShangfeidi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingKaiyuanXiafeidi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingKaiyuanLinfeng Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingKaiyuanBaiqizhai Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingTieling CountyHengdaohezi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingTieling CountyChengping Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingXifengDexing Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingXifengHelong Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingXifengJinxing Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingXifengMingde Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingXifengSongshu Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingXifengYingcheng Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningTielingXifengXipingpo Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongDawangmiao Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongFanjia Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongGaodianzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongGejia Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongHuangdi Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongHuangjia Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongKuanbang Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongMingshui Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongShahe Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongWanghu Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongXiaozhuangzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongYejia Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongGaotai Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoSuizhongBaita Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengCaozhuang Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningHuludaoXingchengDazhai Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengDongxinzhuang Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengGaojialing Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengGuojia Manchu Ethnic TownLiaoningHuludaoXingchengHaibin Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengHongyazi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengJianjin Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengJianchang Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengJiumen Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengLiutaizi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengNandashan Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengShahousuo Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengWanghai Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengWeiping Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengWenjia Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengYang'an Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengYaowangmiao Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengYuantaizi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoXingchengErdaowanzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoJianchangXintaimen Manchu Ethnic TownshipLiaoningHuludaoLianshanManzutun Manchu Ethnic TownshipInner MongoliaHingganHorqin Right Front BannerGuanjiayingzi Manchu Ethnic TownshipInner MongoliaChifengSongshanShijia Manchu Ethnic TownshipInner MongoliaChifengHarqin BannerCaonian Manchu Ethnic TownshipInner MongoliaUlanqabLiangchengSungezhuang Manchu Ethnic TownshipTianjinN/AJiManchu autonomous area in north China. Manchu autonomous area in Liaoning.[note 7] Manchu autonomous area in Jilin. Manchu autonomous area in Hebei.
Other areas
Further information: Manchu people in TaiwanManchu people can be found living outside mainland China. There are approximately 12,000 Manchus now in Taiwan. Most of them moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949. Puru, a famous painter, calligrapher and also the founder of the Manchu Association of Republic of China, was a typical example.[3] There are also Manchus who settled in the United States and Japan, such as John Fugh, Garry Guan and Fukunaga Kosē.
CultureEdit
Language and alphabet
Language
Main article: Manchu languageThe Manchu language is a Tungusic language and has many dialects. It has its own standard language called "Standard Manchu". It originates from the accent of Jianzhou Jurchens[94] and was officially standardized by the Qianlong Emperor under his reign.[95] During the Qing period, Manchus at court were required to speak Standard Manchu[96] or face the emperor's reprimand.[96] This applied equally to the palace presbyter of shamanic fete when performing sacrifice.[96] Due to the regional difference, there are also many dialects. For example, Beijing dialect is one of the most commonly used ones. It was a mixed by several dialects since the Manchus who lived in Beijing were not only Jianzhou Jurchens, but also Haixi Jurchens andYeren Jurchens. Over time, the mingling of their accents produced Beijing dialect (京语). Beijing dialect is very close to Standard Manchu.[97] Mukden dialect, aka Mukden-South Manchurian dialect (盛京南满语) or Mukden-Girin dialect (盛京吉林语), is another popular used dialect which was originally spoken by the Manchus who lived in Liaoning and the western and southern areas of Jilin, having an accent very close to the Xibe language spoken by the Xibes living in Qapqal.[98]There are also Ningguta dialect, Alcuka dialect, etc., of Manchu which have their own particular characteristics.[99]
Alphabet
Main article: Manchu alphabetJurchens, ancestors of the Manchu, had created Jurchen script in the Jin Dynasty. After Jin collapsed, Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the Ming period, 60%-70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters and 30%-40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.[43] This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming reign. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded his scholars, Gagai and Eldeni, to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.[100] They dutifully complied with the Khan's order and created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" (Manchu: ᡨᠣᠩᡴᡳᡶᡠᡴᠠᠠᡴᡡᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ; Möllendorff: tongki fuka akū hergen; 无圈点满文) or "old Manchu script" (老满文).[101] Due to its hurried creation, the script has its defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.[102][103] Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script".[104]
Current situation
"Banjin Inenggi" and Manchu linguistic activity by the government and students inChangchun, 2011After the 1800s, most Manchus had perfected Standard Chinese and the number who knew Manchu was dwindling.[105] Although the Qing emperors emphasized the importance of Manchu language again and again, the tide could not be turned. After the Qing collapsed, the Manchu language lost its status as a national language and its use officially in education ended. Manchus today generally speak Standard Chinese. The remaining skilled native Manchu speakers number less than 100,[106] most of whom are to be found in Sanjiazi (Manchu: ᡳᠯᠠᠨᠪᠣᠣ; Möllendorff: ilan boo), Heilongjiang Province.[107] Since 1980s, there has been a resurgence of Manchu language among the government, scholars and social activities.[108] In recent years, with the help of the governments in Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, many schools started to have Manchu classes.[109][110][111] There are also Manchu volunteers in many places of China who freely teach Manchu in the desire to rescue of the language.[112][113][114][115] Thousands of non-Manchu speakers have learned the language through these measures.[116][117]
Names and naming practices
Family names
Main article: Manchu family namethe cover of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans' BookThe history of Manchu family names is quite long. Fundamentally, it succeeds the Jurchen family name of the Jin Dynasty.[118] However, after the Mongols extinguished the Jurchen empire, Manchus started to adopt Mongol culture, including their custom of using only their given name till the end of the Qing Dynasty,[119] a practice confounding non-Manchus, leading them to conclude, erroneously, that they simply don't have family names.[120]A Manchu family name usually has two portions: the first is "Mukūn" (ᠮᡠᡴᡡᠨ) which literally means "branch name"; the second, "Hala" (ᡥᠠᠯᠠ), represents the name of a person's clan.[121] According to the Book of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans (八旗滿洲氏族通譜), there are 1,114 Manchu family names. Gūwalgiya, Niohuru, Šumulu, Tatara, Gioro, Nara are considered as "famous clans" (著姓) among Manchus.[122]
Given names
Main article: Manchu given nameManchus given names are distinctive. Generally, there are several forms, such as bearing suffixes "-ngga", "-ngge" or "-nggo", meaning "having the quality of";[123] bearing the suffixes "-tai" or "-tu", meaning "having";[124][125] bearing the suffix, "-ju", "-boo";[124] numerals[note 8][124][125] or animal names[note 9].[123][124]
Current status
Nowadays, Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name,[note 10] a Chinese family name and Manchu given name[note 11] or both Manchu family and given names.[note 12]
Traditional garments
Manchu young man dressing in traditional clothesThe early phase of Manchu clothing succeeded from Jurchen tradition. White was the dominating color.[126] Due to the convenience of archery, robe is the most representative clothing of the Manchu people.[127] On the robe, surcoat is usually wore. was a military uniform of Eight banners army.[128] Since Kangxi period, surcoat got popular in third estate.[129] Modern Chinese female suit Cheongsam and Tangzhuang are deverted from Manchu robe and surcoat[127] which are commonly considered as "Chinese elements".[130]Wearing hats is also a part of Manchu traditional culture.[131] Conventionally, especially different from Han Chinese culture of "Starting to wear hats in 20 year-old" (二十始冠), Manchu people wear hats in all ages and seasons.[131] Manchu hats has formal and casual ones. Formal hats also have two different styles, one is straw hat worn in spring and summer and another is warm hat worn in fall and winter.[132] Casual hat is more known as "Mandarin hat" in English.Manchus have many distinctive traditional accessories. Women traditionally wear 3 earrings in each ear,[133] a tradition that is maintained by many older Manchu women.[134] Males also traditionally wear piercings, but they tend to only have one earring in their youth and do not continue to wear it as adults.[135] The Manchu people also have traditional jewelry which evokes their past as hunters. The fergetun (ᡶᡝᡵᡤᡝᡨᡠᠨ), a thumb ring traditionally made out of reindeer bone, was worn to protect the thumbs of archers. After the Manchu conquest of China in 1644, the fergetun gradually became simply a form of jewelry, with the most valuable ones made in jade and ivory.[136]
Traditional activities
Riding and archery
Painting of Qianlong Emperor huntingRiding and archery (Manchu: ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠮᠨᡳᠶᠠᠨ; Möllendorff: niyamniyan) is significant to the Manchu. They were well-trained horsemen from their teenage[137] years. Hong Taiji, the Qing Taizong emperor, said, "Riding and Archery is the most important martial art of our country".[138][139] Every generation of the Qing dynasty treasured Riding and Archery the most.[140] Every spring and fall, from ordinary Manchus to aristocrats, all had to take a riding and archery test. Their test results could even affect their rank in the nobility.[141] The Manchus of the early Qing had excellent shooting skills and their arrows were reputed to be capable of penetrating two people.[142]From the middle period of Qing, archery became more a form of entertainment, in the form of games such as, hunting swans, shooting fabric or silk target. The most difficult is shooting a candle hanging in the air at night.[143] Gambling was banned in the Qing reign but there was no limitation on Manchus engaging in shooting skill contests. It was common to see Manchus putting signs in front of their houses to invite challenges.[143] After the Qianlong period, Manchus gradually neglected the practice of riding and archery, even though their rulers tried their best to encourage Manchus to continue their riding and archery traditions,[142] but the tradition is still kept among some Manchus even nowadays.[144]
Manchu wrestling
Manchu wrestlers competed in front of Qianlong EmperorManchu wrestling (Manchu: ᠪᡠᡴᡠ; Möllendorff: buku) [145] is also an important martial art of the Manchu people.[146] Buku, meaning "wrestling" or "man of unusual strength" in Manchu, was originally from a Mongolian word, “bökh”.[145] The history of Manchu wrestling can be traced back to Jurchen wrestling in the Jin Dynasty which was originally from Khitan wrestling; it was very similar to Mongolian wrestling.[147] In the Yuan Dynasty, the Jurchens who lived in northeast China adopted Mongol culture including wrestling, bökh.[148] In the latter Jin and early Qing period, rulers encouraged the populace, including aristocrats, to practise buku as a feature of military training.[149] At the time, Mongol wrestlers were the most famous and powerful. By the Chongde period, Manchus had developed their own well-trained wrestlers[150] and, a century later, in the Qianlong period, they surpassed Mongol wreslers.[151] The Qing court established the "Shan Pu Battalion" and chose 200 fine wrestlers divided into three levels. Manchu wrestling moves can be found in today's Chinese wrestling, Shuai jiao, which is its most important part.[152]Among many branches, Beijing wrestling adopted most Manchu wrestling moves.[153]
Falconry
As a result of their hunting ancestry, Manchus are traditionally interested in falconry.[154]Gyrfalcon (Manchu: ᡧᠣᠩᡴᠣᡵᠣ; Möllendorff: šongkoro) is the most highly valued discipline in the Manchu falconry social circle.[155] In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward.[155] There were professional falconers in Ningguta area (today's Heilongjiang province and the northern part of Jilin province). It was a big base of falconry.[154] Beijing's Manchus also like falconry. Compared to the falconry of Manchuria, it is more like an entertainment.[140] Imperial Household Department of Beijing had professional falconers, too. They provided outstanding falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt every fall.[140] Even today, Manchu traditional falconry is well practised in some regions.[156]
Ice skating
the performance of Manchu palace skaters on holidayIce skating (Manchu: ᠨᡳᠰᡠᠮᡝᡝᡶᡳᡵᡝᡝᡶᡳᠨ; Möllendorff: nisume efime efin) is another Manchu pastime. Emperor Qianlong called it “national custom”.[157] It is one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household,[158] performed by "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" (八旗冰鞋营)[158]which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain.[158] The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In the Jiaqing period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion (精捷营) originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion".[158]In 1930s-1940s, there was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing whose name was Wu Tongxuan, from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters in Empress Dowager Cixi's reign.[159]He frequently appeared in many of Beijing's skating rinks.[159] Nowadays, there are still Manchu figure skaters; world champions Zhao Hongbo and Tong Jian are the pre-eminent examples.
Literature
The Tale of the Nisan Shaman (Manchu: ᠨᡳᡧᠠᠨᠰᠠᠮᠠᠨᡳᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ; Möllendorff: nišan saman i bithe; 尼山萨满传) is the most important literature of Manchus.[160] It primarily tells the process of how Nisan Shaman helps a young hunter revive.[161] The story spreads not long among Manchus, but also in Xibe, Nanai, Daur, Oroqen, Evenk and other Tungusic peoples.[160] It basically has four versions: the handwriting version from Qiqihar; two different handwriting versions from Aigun; the one which was written by a Manchu writer Dekdengge in Vladivostok (Manchu: ᡥᠠᡳᡧᡝᠨᠸᡝᡳ; Möllendorff:haišenwei[162]). The pilot of four versions are similar, but the version of Haišenwei has the most complete content.[163] It is already translated in Russian, Chinese, English and other languages.[160]There is also literature written in Chinese by Manchu writers, such as the Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters (儿女英雄传), Song Of Drinking Water (饮水词) and The collection of Tianyouge (天游阁集).
Folk art
Octagonal drum
Octagonal drum performance on stageOctagonal drum is a type of Manchu folk art that was very popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.[164] It is said that octagonal drum originated with the snare drum of the Eight-banner military and the melody was made by the banner soldiers who were on the way back home from victory in the battle of Jinchuan.[164] The drum is composed of wood surrounded by bells. The drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom.[164] The colors of the tassels are yellow, white, red, and blue, which represent the four colors of Eight Banners.[165] When artists perform, they use their fingers to hit the drumhead and shake the drum to ring the bells.[164]Traditionally, octagonal drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the third is the singer.[164]Akšan, Manchu singer and ulabun artist"Zidishu" is the main libretto of octagonal drum and can be traced back to a type of traditional folk music called "Manchu Rhythm".[166] Although Zidishu was not created by Chinese people, it still contains many themes from Chinese stories,[167] such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms,Dream of the Red Chamber, Romance of the West Chamber, Legend of the White Snake andStrange Stories from a Chinese Studio.[167] Additionally, there are many works that depict the lives of Bannermen. Aisin Gioro Yigeng, who was pen named "Helü" and wrote the sigh of old imperial bodyguard, is the representative author.[168] Zidishu involves two acts of singing, which are called dongcheng and xicheng.[169]After the fall of the Qing dynasty, the influence of the octagonal drum gradually reduced. However, the Chinese monochord[169] and crosstalk[170] which derived from octagonal are still popular in Chinese society. Many famous Chinese monochord performers and crosstalkers were the artists of octagonal drum. Such as De shoushan and Zhang Sanlu.[171]
Ulabun
Ulabun (ᡠᠯᠠᠪᡠᠨ) is a Manchu storytelling entertainment which is performed in Manchu language.[172]Different from octagonal drum, ulabun is popular among the Manchu people who lives in Manchuria. It has two main categories. One is popular folk literature such as the Tale of the Nisan Shaman; Another classification is from folk music which is informative and has independent pilot, complete structure.[172] Song Xidong aka. Akšan (ᠠᡴᡧᠠᠨ) is a famous artist in performing ulabun.[173]
Religion
The religions of the Manchus are diverse. Originally, Manchus, and their predecessors, were principally Shamanists. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, Manchus came into contact with Chinese culture. They were markedly influenced by Chinese folk religion and retained only some Shamanic customs. Buddhism and Christianity also had their impacts. Manchus are today mostly irreligious.[4]
Shamanism
Main article: Shamanism in the Qing dynastyShamanism has a long history in Manchu civilization and influenced them tremendously over thousands of years. John Keay states in A History Of China, shaman is the single loan-word from Manchurian into the English language. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, although Manchus widely adopted Chinese folk religion, Shamanic traditions can still be found in the aspects of soul worship, totem worship, belief in nightmares and apotheosis of philanthropists.[174] Since the Qing rulers considered religion as a method of controlling other powers such as Mongolians and Tibetans,[175] there was no privilege for Shamanism, their native religion. Apart from the Shamanic shrines in the Qing palace, no temples erected for worship of Manchu gods could be found in Beijing.[175] Thus, the story of competition between Shamanists and Lamaists was oft heard in Manchuria but the Manchu emperor helped Lamaists to persecute Shamanists which led to their considerable frustration and dissatisfaction.[175]
Buddhism
Jurchens, the predecessors of the Manchus, were influenced by the Buddhism of Balhae, Goryeo,Khitan and Song in the 10-13th centuries,[176] so it was not something new to the rising Manchus in the 16-17th centuries. Qing emperors were always entitled "Buddha". They were regarded asMañjuśrī in Tibetan Buddhism[89] and had high attainments.[176] However, Buddhism was used by rulers to control Mongolians and Tibetans; it was of little relevance to ordinary Manchus in the Qing Dynasty.[175]
Folklore
Guan Yu who was regarded as the God Protector of the NationManchus were affected by Chinese folk religions for most of the Qing Dynasty.[175] Save for ancestor worship, the gods they consecrated were virtually identical to those of the Han Chinese.[175] Guan Yu worship is a typical example. He was considered as the God Protector of the Nation and was sincerely worshipped by Manchus. They called him "Lord Guan" (关老爷). Uttering his name was taboo.[175] In addition, Manchus worshipped Cai Shen and The Kitchen god just as the Han Chinese did. The worship of Mongolian and Tibetan gods has also been reported.[175]
Christianity
There were Manchu Christians in the Qing Dynasty. In Yongzheng and Qianlong's era, Depei, the Hošo Jiyan Prince, was a Catholic whose baptismal name was "Joseph". His wife was also baptised and named “Maria”.[177] At the same time, the sons of Doro Beile Sunu were devout Catholics, too.[177][178] In the Jiaqing period, Tong Hengšan and Tong Lan were Catholic Manchu Bannermen.[177] These Manchu Christians were proselytized and persecuted by Qing emperors but they steadfastly refused to convert.[177] There were Manchu Christians in modern times, too, such as Ying Lianzhi, Lao She and Philip Fugh.
Traditional holidays
Manchus have many traditional holidays. Some are derived from Chinese culture, such as "Spring Festival"[179] and Duanwu Festival.[180] Some are of Manchu origin. For instance, Banjin Inenggi (ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᠨᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ), on the 13th day of the tenth month of the lunar calendar, is the anniversary of the name creation of Manchu.[85] This day in 1635, Qing Taizong Emperor, Hong Taiji, changed the ethnic name from Jurchen to Manchu.[49][181] Food Extermination Day (绝粮日), on every 26th day of the 8th month of the lunar calendar, is another example which was inspired by a story that once Nurhaci and his troops were in a battle with enemies and almost running out of food. The villagers who lived near the battlefield heard the emergency and came to help. There was no tableware on the battlefield. They had to use perilla leaves to wrap the rice. Afterwards, they won the battle. So later generations could remember this hardship, Nurhaci made this day the "Food Extermination Day". Traditionally on this day, Manchu people eat perilla or cabbage wraps with rice, scrambled eggs, beef or pork.[182]
See alsoEdit
China portalManchu language and alphabetManchuriaEight BannersQing DynastyList of Manchu clansTungusic peoplesSushenDonghuMoheJurchenFu ManchuManchu (9th Infantry Regiment, US Army)
Notes and References
Further reading
External links
Read in another language
Given Qing Dynasty era's Opium and Silk trades hoarded by 4( UK, Jap-Kobe Jews from N.Y., Russia, France) as well as internal Chinese rebellion by Kaifeng jews and Hui Muslims; Qing Dynasty territories were taken and divided among France/UK/Russia/Jap-USA occupying Kobe. Starting in 1853; Qing Dynasty lost all of its properties to 4 invaders; France, UK, Russia,&Jap; All the wealth and bank accounts of Korean Monarchy was confiscated among the four( note Jap was occupied by 1860s Kobe Jews who came up with 200Million N.Y. based Zionist Jew occupying Kobe,Jap); German bank in China holding Korean King GoJuhng's bank account deposit around 200Million plus gold bars held in Korea were stolen...Russia took Northern Sakhalin-Port Arthur Liaotung Penin Manchu-NE properties adjacent to Northern Sahkalin Is.France took VietnamJap Meiji Kobe Jews from 1860 took Korea-Southern Sakhalin-Okinawa Is.-TaiwanUK took Sikkim-Bhutan-Burma-Siam-all properties south of Siam1862-1877 Muslim rebellion in Sinkiang-Tibet1853-1868 Nien-Rebellion1853-1864 Kaifeng jews of Taiping-Nien-Rebellion
http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/images/lt19cmap.gif
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) -
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) -
The Qing dynasty 清 (1644-1911) was the last imperial dynasty in China. It was founded by the non-Chinese people
The Qing dynasty was the last imperial dynasty to rule China. Established in 1644 by the Manchus,
(1644–1911/12), the last of the imperial dynasties of China.
In 1644, the Manchus, a semi-nomadic people from northeast of the Great Wall, conquered the crumbling Ming state
In 1636, Huang Taiji, son of Nurhachu moved the capital to Shenyang and changed the regime title into 'Qing'.
Aisin Gioro Xianyu was born in Beijing as the 14th daughter to Shanqi, the 10th son of Prince Su(肅親王) of the Manchu imperial family and a concubine. She was given for adoption at the age of eight to her father's friend Naniwa Kawashima, a Japanese espionage agent and mercenaryadventurer after the Xinhai Revolution, but she was raised and educated in her grandfather's home in the city of Matsumoto, in Japan. Her step-father changed her original name Aisin Gioro Xianyu to (Kawashima) Yoshiko. She did not find an appropriate family either. As a teenage girl, she was raped by Kawashima's father, and later had an affair with Kawashima himself.[1]Meanwhile her biological father Shanqi Su died in 1921
She is the 14th Princess of the defunct Qing Dynasty. She became an adopted daughter of Naniwa Kawashima(Japanise Ronin). She grew up in Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan. She succeeded in taking out Puyi' Empress from Tienchin in 1931. She paired with Ryukichi "the monster" Tanaka, and accomplished the plot that became the chance of the first Shanghai incident in 1932.She became a commander of the Manchurian army(安国軍総司令) in 1933. She was arrested by the National party after the war. She insisted that she was Japanese, because the betrayer's crime was heavier than a Japanese war criminal. But the court did not admit her insistence, and she was executed as a betrayer(漢奸). She was called the Beauty dressed as a man(男装の麗人), and is still popular in Japan.There is a legend that she was not executed and was alive somewhere. Lt.AmuroMember Posts: 93Joined: 22 Aug 2005, 17:09Location: JapanOne of the most interesting person of Pre and War time Japan was Yoshiko Kawashima aka Eastern Jewel, the 14th Princess of the defunct Qing Dynasty, who was rised by Japanese and spyed for the Japanese during the war.Many know her as the Mata Hari of East Asia and one of the greatest traitor in modern Chinese history. She was later arrested and shot for treason by the KMT when Japan refused to acknowledge her as one of her subjects. Below is a brief bio in Chinese. 川島芳子(1906年5月24日-1948年3月25日)，原名爱新觉罗显纾，又名金壁辉。她是清朝末年肅親王的第14位女兒，辛亥革命后，以日本大陆浪人川岛浪速的继女去日本。因为肃亲王怜悯川岛浪速没有孩子，作为友情的证据把女兒赠送给他。以后，她改名为川岛芳子，並在日本接受教育。17岁遭养父川岛浪速強姦，自殺未遂之後斷髮並改作男装打扮。 1927年20岁的时候，在旅顺与蒙古王族结婚。不过，1930年私奔。用养父的联系接近关东军，滿洲事變和上海事变时作为日本间谍暗中活动了。1932年满洲国成立后，川岛芳子在新京被满洲国女官长任命了。一说她当满洲皇室的护卫员。1933年在关东军被扛变成满洲国安国军总司令，参加热河作战。关东军宣传“安国军是由满洲公主带领的满洲国义勇军。” 可是关东军无法对付川岛芳子的奇特的性格，1936年被日本送回。此后她和一个有名的行情师住在一起，在天津经营中华料理铺箍，1945年日本战败时在北京被中国国民党军逮捕，作为日本间谍被提起了公诉。1947年死刑判决，1948年执行死刑，得年41岁。爱新觉罗显琦是川岛芳子的妹妹。 根據日本電視劇《流轉的王妃·最後的皇弟》，她在昭和22年因為保護皇后婉容、嵯峨浩等人撤離滿洲國皇宮時，被攻入皇宮的暴民圍捕，並移送返北平。這段故事的真實性存疑。 在大多数中国大陆老百姓的心目中，川島芳子是一个臭名昭著的汉奸。
In 1927, Kawashima married Ganjuurjab, the son of Inner Mongolian Army General Jengjuurjab, leader of the Mongolian-Manchurian Independence Movement based in Ryojun. The marriage ended in divorce after only two years, and Kawashima moved to the foreign concession inShanghai.[3] While in Shanghai, she met Japanese military attaché and intelligence officerRyukichi Tanaka, who utilized her contacts with the Manchu and Mongol nobility to expand his network. She was living together with Tanaka in Shanghai at the time of the Shanghai Incident of 1932.After Tanaka was recalled to Japan, Kawashima continued to serve as a spy for Major-GeneralKenji Doihara. She undertook undercover mission in Manchuria, often in disguise, and was considered "strikingly attractive, with a dominating personality, almost a film-drama figure, half tom-boy and half heroine, and with this passion for dressing up as a male. Possibly she did this to impress the men, or so that she could more easily fit into the tightly-knit guerrilla groups without attracting too much attention".[4][5]Kawashima was well-acquainted with former Qing Emperor Pu Yi who regarded her as a member of Royal Family and made her welcome in his household during his stay in Tianjin. It was through this close liaison that Kawashima was able to persuade Pu Yi to return to the Manchu homeland as head of the newly Japanese-created state of Manchukuo.After the installation of Pu Yi as Emperor of Manchukuo, Kawashima continued to play various roles and, for a time, was mistress of Major General Hayao Tada, who was chief military advisor for Pu Yi. She formed an independent counter insurgency cavalry force in 1932 made up of 3,000-5,000 former bandits to hunt down anti-Japanese guerilla bands during the Pacification of Manchukuo, and was hailed in the Japanese newspapers as the Joan of Arc of Manchukuo.[6] In 1933, she offered the unit to the Japanese Kwantung Army for Operation Nekka, but it was refused. The unit continued to exist under her command until sometime in the late 1930s.[7]Kawashima became a well-known and popular figure in Manchukuo society, making appearances on radio broadcasts, and even issuing a record of her songs. Numerous fictional and semi-fictional stories of her exploits were published in newspapers and also in the pulp fiction press. However, her very popularity created issues with the Kwantung Army, as her utility as an intelligence asset was long gone, and her value as a propaganda symbol was compromised by her increasingly critical tone against the Japanese military's exploitative policies in Manchukuo as a base of operations against China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and she gradually faded from public sight.After the end of the war, on 11 November 1945, a news agency reported that "a long sought-for beauty in male costume was arrested in Peking by the Chinese counter-intelligence officers." In 1948, Kawashima was tried as a traitor (Hanjian) by the Nationalist Government under her Chinese name (Jin Bihui).[8] She was executed by a shot into the back of her head.[9]
In popular culture
Yoshiko Kawashima (left) with Ryukichi Tanaka (right) the man who put her on the Intelligence payroll at the time they lived togetherKawashima has been depicted in numerous movies from 1932 until the present day by many actresses. She was featured in the movie The Last Emperor, where she appeared as "Eastern Jewel", played by Maggie Han. A film titled Sen'un Ajia no Joō about her was released in Japan in 1957.[10] Anita Mui played Kawashima Yoshiko in a 1990 Hong Kong-produced film, The Last Princess of Manchuria. She is a prominent character in the 2007 drama Ri Kouran, which tells the story of the life of Yoshiko Yamaguchi, also known as Li Xianglan (李香蘭). She was portrayed by Japanese idol Rei Kikukawa.More scholarly and peer-reviewed research exists on Kawashima Yoshiko in English in Dan Shao's Princess, Traitor, Soldier, Spy: Aisin Gioro Xianyu and the Dilemma of Manchu Identityand in Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire, edited by Mariko Asano Tamanoi.[11]The Private Papers of Eastern Jewel, by Maureen Lindley, is a 2008 novel about the life of Yoshiko Kawashima. Kawashima was featured as a character in Ian Buruma's novel The China Lover, released in 2008.Meisa Kuroki portrays Kawashima in the 2008 Japanese drama Dansō no Reijin: Kawashima Yoshiko no Shōgai. An eight-year-old Kawashima Yoshiko makes a cameo appearance in thePlayStation 2 game Shadow Hearts: Covenant.
金璧輝Yoshiko Kawashima (川島 芳子 Kawashima Yoshiko?, 24 May 1907 – 25 March 1948) was aManchu princess brought up in Japan, who served as a spy in the service of the JapaneseKwantung Army and Manchukuo during the Second World War. Originally named Aisin GioroXianyu (Aisin Gioro Hsien-yu; 愛新覺羅·顯玗) with the courtesy name Dongzhen (Tung-chen;Chinese: 東珍; literally "Eastern Jewel"), her Chinese name was Jin Bihui (Chin Pi-hui; simplified Chinese: 金璧辉; traditional Chinese: 金璧輝; pinyin: Jīn Bìhuī; Wade–Giles: Chin1 Pi4-hui1). She is sometimes known in fiction by the pseudonym as the "Eastern Mata Hari”. She was executed as a traitor by the Kuomintang after the Second Sino-Japanese War.The Kuomintang[3] (/ˌkwoʊmɪnˈtɑːŋ/ or /-ˈtæŋ/;[4] KMT), officially the Kuomintang of China,[5] or sometimes romanized as Guomindang by its Pinyin transliteration, is the ruling political party inTaiwan. The name literally means the Chinese National People's Party, but is more often translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party.[6]The predecessor of KMT, the Revolutionary Alliance, was one of the major proponents who advocated to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and establish a republic. The KMT was founded bySong Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911. Aisin Gioro Xianyu was born in Beijing as the 14th daughter to Shanqi, the 10th son of Prince Su(肅親王) of the Manchu imperial family and a concubine. She was given for adoption at the age of eight to her father's friend Naniwa Kawashima, a Japanese espionage agent and mercenaryadventurer after the Xinhai Revolution, but she was raised and educated in her grandfather's home in the city of Matsumoto, in Japan. Her step-father changed her original name Aisin Gioro Xianyu to (Kawashima) Yoshiko.As a teenage girl, she was raped by Kawashima's father, and later had an affair with Kawashima himself.[1]Meanwhile her biological father Shanqi Su died in 1921. His concubine, who had no official identity, committed the traditional suicide. Yoshiko was sent to school in Tokyo for an education that included judo and fencing and then lived a bohemian lifestyle for some years in Tokyo with a series of rich lovers, both men and women.[2]
山 shān – mountain东 dōng – east"east of the Taihang Mountains" "Shandong" mean "mountain" (山) and "east" (东). Shandong could hence be translated literally as "east of the mountains" and refers to the province's location to the east of the Taihang Mountains.[4] A common nickname for Shandong is Qílǔ (simplified Chinese: 齐鲁; traditional Chinese: 齊魯), after the States of Qi andLu that existed in the area during the Spring and Autumn Period. Whereas the State of Qi was a major power of its era, the State of Lu played only a minor role in the politics of its time. Lu, however, became renowned for being the home of Confucius and hence its cultural influence came to eclipse that of the State of Qi. The cultural dominance of the State of Lu heritage is reflected in the official abbreviation for Shandong which is "鲁" (Chinese: 魯; pinyin:Lǔ).[citation needed] English speakers in the 19th century called the province, Shan-tung.[5]Shandong is part of the Eastern Block of the North China craton. Beginning in the Mesozoic, Shandong has undergone a crustal thinning that is unusual for a craton and that has reduced the thickness of the crust from 200 km (120 mi) to as little as 80 km (50 mi). Shandong has hence experienced extensive volcanism in the Tertiary.Some geological formations in Shandong are rich in fossils. For example, Zhucheng, which is located in southeastern Shandong, has been the site of many discoveries of dinosaur fossils. A major find of 7,600 dinosaur bones that including tyrannosaurus and ankylosaurus remains was announced in 2008, and is believed to be the largest collection ever found.[7]Many generations of the senior-branch direct descendants of Confucius ruled the Qufu area as its feudal rulers. Here, the tomb of the 59th generation senior descendant, Kong YanjinAs of 1832, Shandong was exporting fruits, vegetables, wine, drugs, and deer skin, often heading to Guangzhou in exchange for clothing and fabrics. [5]Shandong ranks first among the provinces in the production of a variety of products, includingcotton and wheat as well as precious metals such as gold and diamonds. It also has one of the biggest sapphire deposits in the world.[8] Other important crops include sorghum and maize. Shandong has extensive petroleum deposits as well, especially in the Dongying area in theYellow River delta, where the Shengli Oilfield (lit. Victory Oilfield) is one of the major oilfields of China. Shandong also produces bromine from underground wells and salt from sea water.Shandong is one of the richer provinces of China, and its economic development focuses on large enterprises with well-known brand names. Shandong is the biggest industrial producer and one of the top manufacturing provinces in China. Shandong has also benefited from South Korean and Japanese investment and tourism, due to its geographical proximity to those countries.[9] The richest part of the province is the Shandong Peninsula, where the city ofQingdao is home to three of the most well-known brand names of China: Tsingtao Beer, Haierand Hisense. In addition, Dongying's oil fields and petroleum industries form an important component of Shandong's economy. Despite the primacy of Shandong's energy sector, the province has also been plagued with problems of inefficiency and ranks as the largest consumer of fossil fuels in all of China.[9]In 2011, the nominal GDP for Shandong was ¥4.50 trillion (US$711 billion), ranking third in the country (behind Guangdong and Jiangsu). Its GDP per capita was ¥42,014 (US$6,365), ranking eighth.Shandong was one of the first places in which the Boxer Rebellion started and became one of the centers of the uprising. In 1899, the Qing-Dynasty general Yuan Shikai was appointed as governor of the province to suppress the uprising. He held the post for 3 years.As a consequence of the First World War, Germany lost Qingdao and its sphere of influence in Shandong. The Treaty of Versailles transferred the German concessions in Shandong to Japan instead of restoring Chinese sovereignty over the area. Popular dissatisfaction with this outcome of the Treaty of Versailles (Shandong Problem) led to the May Fourth Movement. Finally, Shandong reverted to Chinese control in 1922 after mediation by the United States during theWashington Naval Conference. Weihai followed in 1930.The return of control over Shandong fell into the Warlord era of the Republic of China. Shandong was handed over to the Zhili clique of warlords, but after the Second Zhili-Fengtian War of 1924, the Manchuria-based Fengtian clique took over. In April 1925, the Fengtian clique installed the warlord Zhang Zongchang, nicknamed the "Dogmeat General", as military governor of Shandong Province. Time dubbed him China's "basest warlord".[6] He ruled over the province until 1928, when he was ousted in the wake of the Northern Expedition. He was succeeded by Han Fuju, who was loyal to the warlord Feng Yuxiang but later switched his allegiance to the Nanjing government headed by Chiang Kai-Shek. Han Fuju also ousted the warlord Liu Zhennian, nicknamed the "King of Shandong East", who ruled eastern Shandong Province, hence unifying the province under his rule.In 1937 Japan began its invasion of China proper in the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would eventually become part of the Pacific theatre of the Second World War. Han Fuju was made Deputy Commander in Chief of the 5th War Area and put in charge defending the lower Yellow River valley. However, he abandoned his base in Jinan when the Japanese crossed the Yellow River. He was executed for not following orders shortly thereafter.Shandong was occupied in its entirety by Japan, with resistance continuing in the countryside, and was one of the provinces where a scorched earth policy ("Three Alls Policy": "kill all", "burn all", "loot all") was implemented by general Yasuji Okamura. This lasted until the surrender of Japan in 1945.By 1945, communist forces already held some parts of Shandong. Over the next four years of theChinese Civil War, they expanded their holdings, eventually driving the Kuomintang (government of the Republic of China) entirely out of Shandong by June 1949. The People's Republic of Chinawas founded in October of the same year.Under the new government, parts of western Shandong was initially given to the short-livedPingyuan Province, but this did not last. Shandong also acquired the Xuzhou and Lianyungangareas from Jiangsu province, but this did not last either. For the most part Shandong has kept the same borders that it has today.In recent years Shandong, especially eastern Shandong, has enjoyed significant economic development, becoming one of the richest provinces of the People's Republic of China.金
In his first term, he had supported free trade with Hawai'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor.[129] In the intervening four years, Honolulu businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government; in early 1893 they overthrew her, set up a republican government under Sanford B. Dole, and sought to join the United States.[198] The Harrison administration had quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval.[198] Five days after taking office on March 9, 1893, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawai'i to investigate the conditions there.[199]Cleveland agreed with Blount's report, which found the populace to be opposed to annexation.[199] Liliuokalani initially refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, saying that she would either execute or banish the current government in Honolulu, and Dole's government refused to yield their position.[200] By December 1893, the matter was still unresolved, and Cleveland referred the issue to Congress.[200] In his message to Congress, Cleveland rejected the idea of annexation and encouraged the Congress to continue the American tradition of non-intervention (see excerpt at right).[197] The Senate, under Democratic control but opposed Cleveland, and produced the Morgan Report, which contradicted Blount's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair.[201] Cleveland dropped all talk of reinstating the Queen, and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the new Republic of Hawaii.[202]
Venezuela: crisis with Britain
Closer to home, Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that not only prohibited new European colonies, but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere.[203] When Britain and Venezuela disagreed over the boundary between the latter nation and the colony of British Guiana, Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney protested.[204] British prime minister Lord Salisbury and the British ambassador to Washington, Julian Pauncefote misjudged the gravity the American government placed on the dispute, prolonging the crisis before ultimately accepting the American demand for arbitration.[205][206] A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the matter, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.[207] By standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of a colonial power, Cleveland improved relations with the United States' southern neighbors, but the cordial manner in which the negotiations were conducted also made for good relations with Britain.[208]Cleveland's health had been declining for several years, and in the autumn of 1907 he fell seriously ill.[233]
In 1908, he suffered a heart attack and died.[233] His last words were "I have tried so hard to do right."[234] He is buried in the Princeton Cemetery of the Nassau Presbyterian Church.[235]
Backed by Hanna’s money and organizational skills, McKinley quietly built support for a presidential bid through 1895 and early 1896. When other contenders such as Speaker Reed andIowa Senator William B. Allison sent agents outside their states to organize Republicans in support of their candidacies, they found that Hanna’s agents had preceded them. According to historian Stanley Jones in his study of the 1896 election,Another feature common to the Reed and Allison campaigns was their failure to make headway against the tide which was running toward McKinley. In fact, both campaigns from the moment they were launched were in retreat. The calm confidence with which each candidate claimed the support of his own section [of the country] soon gave way to ... bitter accusations that Hanna by winning support for McKinley in their sections had violated the rules of the game.[85]Hanna, on McKinley’s behalf, met with the eastern Republican political bosses, such as SenatorsThomas Platt of New York and Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania, who were willing to guarantee McKinley’s nomination in exchange for promises regarding patronage and offices. McKinley, however, was determined to obtain the nomination without making deals, and Hanna accepted that decision.[86] Many of their early efforts were focused on the South; Hanna obtained a vacation home in southern Georgia where McKinley visited and met with Republican politicians from the region. McKinley needed 453½ delegate votes to gain the nomination; he gained nearly half that number from the South and border states. Platt lamented in his memoirs, “[Hanna] had the South practically solid before some of us awakened.”[87]Louis Dalrymple cartoon from Puck magazine, June 24, 1896, showing McKinley about to crown himself with the Republican nomination. The “priests” are Hanna (in green) and Congressman Charles H. Grosvenor (red); H. H. Kohlsaat is the page holding the robe.The bosses still hoped to deny McKinley a first-ballot majority at the convention by boosting support for local favorite son candidates such as Quay, New York Governor (and former vice president) Levi P. Morton, and Illinois Senator Shelby Cullom. Delegate-rich Illinois proved a crucial battleground, as McKinley supporters, such as Chicago businessman (and future vice president) Charles G. Dawes, sought to elect delegates pledged to vote for McKinley at the national convention in St. Louis. Cullom proved unable to stand against McKinley despite the support of local Republican machines; at the state convention at the end of April, McKinley completed a near-sweep of Illinois’ delegates.[88] Former president Harrison had been deemed a possible contender if he entered the race; when Harrison made it known he would not seek a third nomination, the McKinley organization took control of Indiana with a speed Harrison privately found unseemly. Morton operatives who journeyed to Indiana sent word back that they had found the state alive for McKinley.[89] Wyoming Senator Francis Warren wrote, “The politicians are making a hard fight against him, but if the masses could speak, McKinley is the choice of at least 75% of the entire [body of] Republican voters in the Union”.[90]By the time the national convention began in St. Louis on June 16, 1896, McKinley had an ample majority of delegates. The former governor, who remained in Canton, followed events at the convention closely by telephone, and was able to hear part of Foraker’s speech nominating him over the line. When Ohio was reached in the roll call of states, its votes gave McKinley the nomination, which he celebrated by hugging his wife and mother as his friends fled the house, anticipating the first of many crowds that gathered at the Republican candidate’s home. Thousands of partisans came from Canton and surrounding towns that evening to hear McKinley speak from his front porch. The convention nominated Republican National Committee vice chairman Garret Hobart of New Jersey for vice president, a choice actually made, by most accounts, by Hanna. Hobart, a wealthy lawyer, businessman, and former state legislator, was not widely known, but as Hanna biographer Herbert Croly pointed out, “if he did little to strengthen the ticket he did nothing to weaken it”.[91][92]For decades, rebels in Cuba had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanishcolonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a war for Cuban independence.[125] As war engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew ever harsher. These included the removal of Cubans to internment camps near Spanish military bases, a strategy designed to make it hard for the rebels to receive support in the countryside.[126] American opinion favored the rebels, and McKinley shared in their outrage against Spanish policies.[127] As many of his countrymen called for war to liberate Cuba, McKinley favored a peaceful approach, hoping that through negotiation, Spain might be convinced to grant Cuba independence, or at least to allow the Cubans some measure of autonomy.[128] The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less.[129] In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels, but when American consulFitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana, McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Maine there to protect American lives and property.[130] On February 15, the Maine exploded and sank with 266 men killed.[131] Public opinion and the newspapers demanded war, but McKinley insisted that acourt of inquiry first determine whether the explosion was accidental.[132] Negotiations with Spain continued as the court considered the evidence, but on March 20, the court ruled that theMaine was blown up by an underwater mine.[133] As pressure for war mounted in Congress, McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence.[134] Spain refused McKinley’s proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but Congress anyway declared war on April 20, with the addition of the Teller Amendment which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba.[135]Editorial cartoon intervention in Cuba. Columbia (the American people) reaches out to help oppressed Cuba in 1897 whileUncle Sam (the U.S. government) is blind to the crisis and will not use its powerful guns to help. Judgemagazine, Feb. 6, 1897The expansion of the telegraph and the development of the telephone gave McKinley a greater control over the day-to-day management of the war than previous presidents had enjoyed, and he used the new technologies to direct the army’s and navy’s movements as far as he was able.[136] McKinley found Alger inadequate as Secretary of War, and did not get along with the Army’s commanding general, Nelson A. Miles.[137] Bypassing them, he looked for strategic advice first from Miles’s predecessor, General John Schofield, and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin.[137] The war also led to a change in McKinley’s cabinet, as the President accepted Sherman’s resignation as Secretary of State; Day agreed to serve as Secretary until the war’s end.[138]Within a fortnight, the navy had its first victory when the Asiatic Squadron, led by CommodoreGeorge Dewey, engaged the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines, destroying the enemy force without the loss of a single American vessel.[139] Dewey’s overwhelming victory expanded the scope of the war from one centered in the Caribbean to one that would determine the fate of all of Spain’s Pacific colonies.[140] The next month, McKinley increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force’s commander, Major General Wesley Merritt, the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes—necessities for a long occupation.[141] By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898, McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender the archipelago to the United States.[142] He professed to be open to all views on the subject; however, he believed that as the war progressed, the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war.[143]Meanwhile, in the Caribbean theater, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered nearTampa, Florida, for an invasion of Cuba.[144] The army faced difficulties in supplying the rapidly expanding force even before they departed for Cuba, but by June, Corbin had made progress in resolving the problems.[145] After lengthy delays, the army, led by Major General William Rufus Shafter, sailed from Florida on June 20, landing near Santiago de Cuba two days later.[146]Following a skirmish at Las Guasimas on June 24, Shafter’s army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill.[147] In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties.[148] The next day, the Spanish Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago’s harbor, broke for the open sea but was intercepted and destroyed by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson’s North Atlantic Squadron in the largest naval battle of the war.[149] Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba under effective American control.[150] McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico, which met little resistance when it landed in July.[150]The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government began to look for a way to end the war.[151]
Although public sentiment seemed to favor annexation of the Philippines, several prominent political leaders, including Bryan, ex-President Cleveland, and the newly formed American Anti-Imperialist Leaguemade their opposition known.[153] McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation, with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion.[154] He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation on Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with yellow fever.[154] Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898.[155] The talks continued until December 18, when the Treaty of Pariswas signed.[156] The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam, and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba; in exchange, the United States agreed to pay Spain $20 million.[156] McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two-thirds vote, but his lobbying, and that of Vice President Hobart, eventually saw success, as the Senate voted in favor on February 6, 1899, 57 to 27.[157]During the war, McKinley also pursued the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii. The new republic, dominated by American interests, had seized power from the royal government in 1893.[158] The lame-duck Harrison administration had submitted a treaty of annexation to the Senate; Cleveland, once he returned to office, had sent a special commission to the islands. After receiving the report, Cleveland withdrew the treaty, stating that the revolution did not reflect the will of Hawaiian citizens.[159] Nevertheless, many Americans favored annexation, and the cause gained momentum as the United States became embroiled in war with Spain.[160] McKinley came to office as a supporter of annexation, and lobbied Congress to adopt his opinion, believing that to do nothing would invite a royalist counter-revolution or a Japanese takeover.[160] Foreseeing difficulty in getting two-thirds of the Senate to approve a treaty of annexation, McKinley instead supported the effort of Democratic Representative Francis G. Newlands of Nevada to accomplish the result by joint resolution of both houses of Congress.[161] The resulting Newlands Resolutionpassed both houses by wide margins, and McKinley signed it into law on July 8, 1898.[161]McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan notes, “McKinley was the guiding spirit behind the annexation of Hawaii, showing ... a firmness in pursuing it”;[162] the President told Cortelyou, “We need Hawaii just as much and a good deal more than we did California. It is manifest destiny.”[163] Wake Island, an uninhabited atoll between Hawaii and Guam, was claimed for the United States on July 12, 1898.[164]
Expanding influence overseas
In acquiring Pacific possessions for the United States, McKinley expanded the nation’s ability to compete for trade in China.[165] Even before peace negotiations began with Spain, McKinley asked Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in the region and espoused an “Open Door Policy”, in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation’s territorial integrity.[166] When John Hay replaced Day as Secretary of State at the end of the war, he circulated notes to that effect to the European powers.[167] Great Britain favored the idea, but Russia opposed it; France, Germany, Italy and Japan agreed in principle, but only if all the other nations signed on.[167]Trade with China became imperiled shortly thereafter as the Boxer Rebellion menaced foreigners and their property in China.[168] Americans and other westerners in Peking were besieged and, in cooperation with other western powers, McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the China Relief Expedition.[169] The westerners were rescued the next month, but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting the legislature.[168] McKinley’s actions set a precedent that led to most of his successors exerting similar independent control over the military.[169] After the rebellion ended, the United States reaffirmed its commitment to the Open Door policy, which became the basis of American policy toward China.[170]Closer to home, McKinley and Hay engaged in negotiations with Britain over the possible construction of a canal across Central America. The Clayton–Bulwer Treaty, which the two nations signed in 1850, prohibited either from establishing exclusive control over a canal there. The war had exposed the difficulty of maintaining a two-ocean navy without a connection closer than Cape Horn.[171] Now, with American business and military interests even more involved in Asia, a canal seemed more essential than ever, and McKinley pressed for a renegotiation of the treaty.[171] Hay and the British ambassador, Julian Pauncefote, agreed that the United States could control a future canal, provided that it was open to all shipping and not fortified.[172]McKinley was satisfied with the terms, but the Senate rejected them, demanding that the United States be allowed to fortify the canal.[172] Hay was embarrassed by the rebuff and offered his resignation, but McKinley refused it and ordered him to continue negotiations to achieve the Senate’s demands.[172] He was successful, and a new treaty was drafted and approved, but not before McKinley’s assassination in 1901.[172]
Tariffs and bimetallism
1900 reelection poster celebrates McKinley standing tall on the gold standard with support from soldiers, sailors, businessmen, factory workers and professionals.Two of the great issues of the day, tariff reform and free silver, became intertwined in 1897.[173]Ways and Means chairman Dingley introduced a new tariff bill (later called the Dingley Act) to revise the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act of 1894.[173] McKinley supported the bill, which increased tariffs on wool, sugar, and luxury goods, but the proposed new rates alarmed the French, who exported many luxury items to the United States.[173] The Dingley Act passed the House easily, but was delayed in the Senate as they assessed the French objections.[174] French representatives offered to cooperate with the United States in developing an international agreement on bimetallism if the new tariff rates were reduced; this pleased silverite Republicans in the Senate, whose votes were necessary for passage.[175] The Senate amended the bill to allow limited reciprocity (giving France some possibility of relief), but did not reduce the rates on luxury goods.[176] McKinley signed the bill into law and agreed to begin negotiations on an international bimetallism standard.[177]American negotiators soon concluded a reciprocity treaty with France, and the two nations approached Britain to gauge British enthusiasm for bimetallism.[177] The Prime Minister, Lord Salisbury, and his government showed some interest in the idea and told the American envoy,Edward O. Wolcott, that he would be amenable to reopening the mints in India to silver coinage if the Viceroy's Executive Council there agreed.[178] News of a possible departure from the gold standard stirred up immediate opposition from its partisans, and misgivings by the Indian administration led Britain to reject the proposal.[178] With the international effort a failure, McKinley turned away from silver coinage and embraced the gold standard.[179] Even without the agreement, agitation for free silver eased as prosperity began to return to the United States and gold from recent strikes in the Yukon and Australia increased the monetary supply even without silver coinage.[180] In the absence of international agreement, McKinley favored legislation to formally affirm the gold standard, but was initially deterred by the silver strength in the Senate.[181] By 1900, with another campaign ahead and good economic conditions, McKinley urged Congress to pass such a law, and was able to sign the Gold Standard Act on March 14, 1900, using a gold pen to do so.[182]
Civil rights
In the wake of McKinley’s election in 1896, African Americans were hopeful of progress towards equality. McKinley had spoken out against lynching while governor, and most African Americans who could vote supported him in 1896. McKinley’s priority, however, was in ending sectionalism, and they were disappointed by his policies and appointments. Although McKinley made some appointments of African Americans to low-level government posts, and received some praise for that, the appointments were less than they had received under previous Republican administrations. Blanche K. Bruce, an African American who during Reconstruction had served as senator from Mississippi, received the post of register at the Treasury Department; this post was traditionally given to an African American by Republican presidents. McKinley appointed several black postmasters; however, when whites protested the appointment of Justin W. Lyons as postmaster of Augusta, Georgia, McKinley asked Lyons to withdraw (he was subsequently given the post of Treasury register after Bruce’s death in 1898).[183] The President did appointGeorge B. Jackson, a former slave, to the post of customs collector in Presidio, Texas.[184]However, African Americans in northern states felt that their contributions to McKinley’s victory were overlooked; few were appointed to office.[183]The administration’s response to racial violence was minimal, causing him to lose black support.[183] When black postmasters at Hogansville, Georgia in 1897 and at Lake City, South Carolina the following year were assaulted, McKinley issued no statement of condemnation. Although black leaders criticized McKinley for inaction, supporters responded by saying that there was little the president could do to intervene. Critics replied by saying that he could at least publicly condemn such events, as Harrison had done.[185]McKinley, (right of center) flanked by Georgia GovernorAllen D. Candler (front row to McKinley’s left) and Gen.William Rufus Shafter, reviewing the Atlanta Peace Jubilee parade, December 15, 1898. No African Americans are visible in the photograph.According to historian Clarance A. Bacote, “Before the Spanish–American War, the Negroes, in spite of some mistakes, regarded McKinley as the best friend they ever had.”[186] African Americans saw the onset of war in 1898 as an opportunity to display their patriotism; and black soldiers fought bravely at El Caney and San Juan Hill. African Americans in the peacetime Army had formed elite units; nevertheless they were harassed by whites as they traveled from the West to Tampa for embarkation to the war. Under pressure from black leaders, McKinley required the War Department to commission black officers above the rank of lieutenant. The heroism of the black troops did not still racial tensions in the South, as the second half of 1898 saw several outbreaks of racial violence; 11 African Americans were killed in riots in Wilmington, North Carolina.[187] McKinley toured the South in late 1898, hoping for sectional reconciliation. In addition to visiting Tuskegee Institute and black educator Booker T. Washington, he addressed the Georgia legislature, wearing a badge of gray, and visited Confederate memorials. In his tour of the South, McKinley did not mention the racial tensions or violence. Although the President received a rapturous reception from Southern whites, many African Americans, excluded from official welcoming committees, felt alienated by the President’s words and actions.[187][188]According to Gould and later biographer Phillips, given the political climate in the South, with white legislatures passing segregationist laws such as that upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson, there was little McKinley could have done to improve race relations, and he did better than later presidents Theodore Roosevelt, who doubted racial equality, and Woodrow Wilson, who supported segregation. However, Gould concluded, “McKinley lacked the vision to transcend the biases of his day and to point toward a better future for all Americans”.[189]
Judicial appointments
Main article: List of federal judges appointed by William McKinleyAfter the retirement of Justice Stephen Johnson Field, McKinley appointed Attorney GeneralJoseph McKenna to the Supreme Court of the United States in December 1897.[190] The appointment aroused some controversy as McKenna’s critics in the Senate said he was too closely associated with railroad interests and lacked the qualifications of a Supreme Court justice.[191] Despite the objections, McKenna’s nomination was approved unanimously.[192]McKenna responded to the criticism of his legal education by taking some courses at Columbia Law School for several months before taking his seat.[191]Along with his Supreme Court appointment, McKinley appointed six judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 28 judges to the United States district courts.[193]
1900 election
McKinley ran on his record of prosperity and victory in 1900, winning easy re-election overBryan.Main article: United States presidential election, 1900Republicans were generally successful in state and local elections around the country in 1899, and McKinley was optimistic about his chances at re-election in 1900.[194] McKinley’s popularity in his first term assured him of renomination for a second.[195] The only question about the Republican ticket concerned the vice presidential nomination; McKinley needed a new running mate as Hobart had died in late 1899.[196] McKinley initially favored Elihu Root, who had succeeded Alger as Secretary of War, but McKinley decided that Root was doing too good a job at the War Department to move him.[196] He considered other prominent candidates, including Allison and Cornelius N. Bliss, but none were as popular as the Republican party’s rising star,Theodore Roosevelt.[197] After a stint as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Roosevelt had resigned and raised a cavalry regiment; they fought bravely in Cuba, and Roosevelt returned home covered in glory. Elected governor of New York on a reform platform in 1898, Roosevelt had his eye on the presidency.[196] Many supporters recommended him to McKinley for the second spot on the ticket, and Roosevelt believed it would be an excellent stepping stone to the presidency in 1904.[196] McKinley remained uncommitted in public, but Hanna was firmly opposed to the New York governor.[198] The Ohio senator considered the New Yorker overly impulsive; his stance was undermined by the efforts of political boss and New York Senator Thomas Platt, who, disliking Roosevelt’s reform agenda, sought to sideline the governor by making him vice president.[199]When the Republican convention began in Philadelphia that June, no vice presidential candidate had overwhelming support, but Roosevelt had the broadest range of support from around the country.[196] McKinley affirmed that the choice belonged to the convention, not to him.[200] On June 21, McKinley was unanimously renominated and, with Hanna’s reluctant acquiescence, Roosevelt was nominated for vice president on the first ballot.[201] The Democratic conventionconvened the next month in Kansas City and nominated William Jennings Bryan, setting up a rematch of the 1896 contest.[202] The candidates were the same, but the issues of the campaign had shifted: free silver was still a question that animated many voters, but the Republicans focused on victory in war and prosperity at home as issues they believed favored their party.[203]Democrats knew the war had been popular, even if the imperialism issue was less sure, so they focused on the issue of trusts and corporate power, painting McKinley as the servant of capital and big business.[204] As in 1896, Bryan embarked on a speaking tour around the country while McKinley stayed at home, this time making only one speech, to accept his nomination.[205]Roosevelt emerged as the campaign’s primary speaker and Hanna helped the cause working to settle a coal miners strike in Pennsylvania.[206] Bryan’s campaigning failed to excite the voters as it had in 1896, and McKinley never doubted that he would be re-elected.[207] On November 6, 1900, he was proven correct, winning the largest victory for any Republican since 1872.[208]Bryan carried only four states outside the solid South, and McKinley even won Bryan’s home state of Nebraska.[208]
Second term and assassination
Main article: Assassination of William McKinleyArtist’s conception of the shooting of McKinleyMcKinley entering the Temple of Music on September 6, 1901, shortly before the shots were fired.Soon after his second inauguration on March 4, 1901, William and Ida McKinley undertook a six-week tour of the nation. Traveling mostly by rail, the McKinleys were to travel through the South to the Southwest, and then up the Pacific coast and east again, to conclude with a visit on June 13, 1901 to the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York.[209] However, the First Lady fell ill in California; causing her husband to limit his public events and cancel a series of speeches he had planned to give urging trade reciprocity. He also postponed the visit to the fair until September, planning a month in Washington and two in Canton before the Buffalo visit.[210]Although McKinley enjoyed meeting the public, Cortelyou was concerned with his security due to recent assassinations by anarchists in Europe, and twice tried to remove a public reception from the President’s rescheduled visit to the Exposition. McKinley refused, and Cortelyou arranged for additional security for the trip.[211] On September 5, the President delivered his address at the fairgrounds, before a crowd of some 50,000 people. In his final speech, McKinley urged reciprocity treaties with other nations to assure American manufacturers access to foreign markets. He intended the speech as a keynote to his plans for a second term.[212][213]One man in the crowd, Leon Czolgosz, hoped to assassinate McKinley. He had managed to get close to the presidential podium, but did not fire, uncertain of hitting his target.[212] Czolgosz, since hearing a speech by anarchist Emma Goldman in Cleveland, had decided to do something heroic (in his own mind) for the cause. He had initially decided to get near McKinley, and on September 4, he decided to assassinate him.[214] After the failure on the 5th, Czolgosz waited the next day at the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds, where the President was to meet the public after his return from Niagara Falls. Czolgosz concealed his gun in a handkerchief, and, when he reached the head of the line, shot McKinley twice in the abdomen.[215]McKinley’s concerns, after unsuccessfully trying to convince Cortelyou that he was not seriously wounded, were to urge his aides to break the news gently to Ida, and to call off the mob that had set on Czolgosz—a request that may have saved his assassin’s life.[216] McKinley was taken by electric ambulance to the Exposition hospital, which despite its name and the inclusion of an operating theatre generally only dealt with the minor medical issues of fairgoers. One bullet had apparently been deflected by a button and only grazed the President. Cortelyou selected Dr.Matthew D. Mann from the doctors who hastened to the scene; he had little experience in abdominal surgery or in dealing with gunshot wounds and proved unable to locate the other bullet. Although a primitive X-ray machine was being exhibited on the Exposition grounds, it was not used, and Mann carefully cleaned and closed the wound. After the operation, McKinley was taken to the Milburn House, where the First Lady had taken the news calmly.[217]In the days after the shooting McKinley appeared to improve. Doctors issued increasingly cheerful bulletins. Members of the Cabinet, who had rushed to Buffalo on hearing the news dispersed; Vice President Roosevelt departed on a camping trip to the Adirondacks.[218] Leech wrote,It is difficult to interpret the optimism with which the President’s physicians looked for his recovery. There was obviously the most serious danger that his wounds would become septic. In that case, he would almost certainly die, since drugs to control infection did not exist ... [Prominent New York City physician] Dr. McBurney was by far the worst offender in showering sanguine assurances on the correspondents. As the only big-city surgeon on the case, he was eagerly questioned and quoted, and his rosy prognostications largely contributed to the delusion of the American public.[219]By September 12, McKinley’s doctors were confident enough of his condition to allow him toast and coffee. He proved unable to digest the food. Unknown to the doctors, the gangrene that would kill him was growing on the walls of his stomach, slowly poisoning his blood. On the morning of September 13, McKinley took a turn for the worse, becoming critically ill. Frantic word was sent to the Vice President, who was 12 miles (19 km) from the nearest telegraph station or telephone. By the evening, McKinley roused from a stupor and realized his condition: “It is useless, gentlemen. I think we ought to have prayer.”[220] Relatives and friends gathered around the dying man’s bed as Ida McKinley sobbed over him, stating that she wanted to go with him. “We are all going, we are all going,” her husband replied. “God’s will be done, not ours.”[220] By some accounts, those were his final words; he may also have sung part of his favorite hymn, “Nearer, My God, to Thee”. Sometime that evening, Mark Hanna approached the bedside. The senator addressed McKinley as “Mr. President”; when he received no intelligible response, he abandoned formality and cried out to his friend, “William, William, don’t you know me?”[220]At 2:15 a.m. on September 14, 1901, President McKinley died.[220] Theodore Roosevelt was hastily returning to Buffalo by carriage and rail; that afternoon he took the oath of office as president in Buffalo at the house of his friend Ansley Wilcox, wearing borrowed formal clothing and pledging to carry out McKinley’s political agenda.[221] Czolgosz, put on trial for murder nine days after McKinley’s death, was found guilty, sentenced to death on September 26, and executed by electric chair on October 29, 1901.[222]=
After the war ended in 1865, McKinley decided on a career in the law and began studying in the office of an attorney in Poland, Ohio.[39] The following year, he continued his studies by attendingAlbany Law School in New York.[40] After studying there for less than a year, McKinley returned home and was admitted to the bar in Warren, Ohio, in March 1867.[40] That same year, he moved to Canton, the county seat of Stark County, and set up a small office.[40] He soon formed a partnership with George W. Belden, an experienced lawyer and former judge.[41] McKinley’s practice was successful enough for him to buy a block of buildings on Main Street in Canton, which provided him with a small but consistent rental income for decades to come.[41] When his Army friend Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated for governor in 1867, McKinley made speeches on his behalf in Stark County, his first foray into politics.[42] The county was closely divided between Democrats and Republicans, but Hayes carried it that year in his statewide victory.[42] In 1869, McKinley ran for the office of prosecuting attorney of Stark County, an office usually then held by Democrats, and was unexpectedly elected.[43] When McKinley ran for re-election in 1871, the Democrats nominated William A. Lynch, a prominent local lawyer, and McKinley was defeated by 143 votes.[43]As McKinley’s professional career progressed, so too did his social life blossom as he wooed Ida Saxton, the daughter of a prominent Canton family.[43] They were married on January 25, 1871, in the newly built First Presbyterian Church of Canton, although Ida soon joined her husband’s Methodist church.[44] Their first child, Katherine, was born on Christmas Day 1871.[44] A second daughter, Ida, followed in 1873, but died the same year.[44] McKinley’s wife descended into a deep depression at her baby’s death and her health, never robust, grew worse.[44] Two years later, in 1875, Katherine died of typhoid fever. Ida never recovered from her daughters’ deaths; the McKinleys had no more children.[44] Ida McKinley developed epilepsy around the same time and thereafter disliked her husband's leaving her side.[44] He remained a devoted husband and tended to his wife’s medical and emotional needs for the rest of his life.[44]Ida insisted that McKinley continue his increasingly successful career in law and politics.[45] He attended the state Republican convention that nominated Hayes for a third term as governor in 1875, and campaigned again for his old friend in the election that fall.[45] The next year, McKinley undertook a high-profile case defending a group of coal miners arrested for rioting after a clash with strikebreakers.[46] Lynch, McKinley’s opponent in the 1871 election, and his partner, William R. Day, were the opposing counsel, and the mine owners included Mark Hanna, a Clevelandbusinessman.[46] Taking the case pro bono, he was successful in getting all but one of the miners acquitted.[46] The case raised McKinley’s standing among laborers, a crucial part of the Stark County electorate, and also introduced him to Hanna, who would become his strongest backer in years to come.[46]McKinley’s good standing with labor became useful that year as he campaigned for the Republican nomination for Ohio's 17th congressional district.[47] Delegates to the county conventions thought he could attract blue-collar voters, and in August 1876, McKinley was nominated.[47] By that time, Hayes had been nominated for President, and McKinley campaigned for him while running his own congressional campaign.[48] Both were successful. McKinley, campaigning mostly on his support for a protective tariff, defeated the Democratic nominee, Levi L. Lamborn, by 3,300 votes, while Hayes won a hotly disputed election to reach the presidency.[48] McKinley’s victory came at a personal cost: his income as a congressman would be half of what he earned as a lawyer.[49]New Jersey Senator Bill Bradley published a volume of memoirs, Time Present, Time Past in 1996. In it, the Democrat mentioned having written a high-school report on Hanna—his history teacher, Bradley related, told him that the lesson of the 1896 campaign is that money is power. Bradley, a former basketball player, mentioned that when he was being interviewed in high school, he stated that Hanna was one of his heroes. By the time he wrote the book, however, Bradley had come to believe in limits on campaign spending and blamed Hanna for a sharp escalation in campaign costs. Bradley also stated what Horner terms mischaracterizations of Hanna: that he was the Republican boss of Ohio, and that he did his best to disrupt Roosevelt's presidency. Bradley alleged that since 1896, Republicans have raised money easily from the rich. Despite his condemnation of Hanna, Bradley wrote that he regretted that he could not find a Hanna-like figure who could play an analogous role in advancing his political career.[177]In 2000, Texas Governor George W. Bush successfully ran for the presidency. As the campaign progressed, the media compared Hanna and Bush adviser Karl Rove, who was believed by some to hold a Svengali-like influence over the Texas governor. During the campaign, and until his departure from the White House in 2007, media members often suggested that Rove was able to manipulate Bush, and that Rove exerted considerable control over the government. Bush's advisor was deemed a present-day incarnation of Hanna, who was almost invariably presented negatively and at variance with historical fact. For example, writer Jack Kelly in a 2000 column incorrectly stated that McKinley's front porch campaign was at the direction of Hanna to ensure the candidate did not vary from campaign themes, rather than McKinley deciding that it was his best response to Bryan's national tour. These comparisons were fueled by Rove's interest in, and by some reports, liking for Hanna. Rove studied the McKinley administration at the University of Texas under McKinley biographer Lewis L. Gould, and believes that Hanna's influence has been overrated.[178]According to Horner, Davenport's depiction of Hanna still lingers as the modern image of the former senator:The portrait of Hanna that has stood the test of time is of a man who was grossly obese; a cutthroat attack dog for the "Trusts"; a cigar-smoking man clad in a suit covered with dollar signs who stood side by side with a gigantic figure representing the trusts, and a tiny, childlike William McKinley. He will forever be known as "Dollar Mark".[179]Marcus Alonzo "Mark" Hanna (September 24, 1837 – February 15, 1904) was a RepublicanUnited States Senator from Ohio and the friend and political manager of President William McKinley. Hanna had made millions as a businessman, and used his money and business skills to successfully manage McKinley's presidential campaigns in 1896 and 1900.Hanna was born in New Lisbon (today Lisbon), Ohio, in 1837. His family moved to the growing city of Cleveland in his teenage years, where he attended high school with John D. Rockefeller. He was expelled from college, and entered the family mercantile business. He served briefly during the American Civil War and married Charlotte Rhodes; her father, Daniel Rhodes, took Hanna into his business after the war. Hanna was soon a partner in the firm, which grew to have interests in many areas, especially coal and iron. He was a wealthy man in Cleveland by his 40th birthday, and turned his attention to politics.Despite Hanna's efforts on his behalf, Ohio Senator John Sherman failed to gain the Republican nomination for president in 1884 and 1888. With Sherman becoming too old to be considered a contender, Hanna worked to elect McKinley. In 1895, Hanna left his business career to devote himself full-time to McKinley's campaign for president. Hanna paid all expenses to get McKinley the nomination the following year, although he was in any event the frontrunner. The Democrats nominated former Nebraska Congressman William Jennings Bryan, who ran on a bimetallism, or "Free Silver", platform. Hanna's fundraising broke records, and once initial public enthusiasm for Bryan and his program subsided, McKinley was comfortably elected.Declining a Cabinet position, Hanna secured appointment as senator from Ohio after Sherman was made Secretary of State; he was re-elected by the Ohio General Assembly in 1898 and 1904. After McKinley's assassination in 1901, Senator Hanna worked for the building of a canal in Panama, rather than elsewhere in Central America. He died in 1904, and is remembered for his role in McKinley's election, thanks to savage cartoons by such illustrators as Homer Davenport, who lampooned him as McKinley's political master.
Early life and business career
Hanna as a boyMarcus Alonzo Hanna was born on September 24, 1837, in New Lisbon (in 1895 renamedLisbon), Ohio, to Dr. Leonard and Samantha Hanna. Leonard's father, Benjamin Hanna, a Quakerof Scotch-Irish descent, was a wealthy store owner in New Lisbon. Dr. Hanna practiced inColumbiana County, where New Lisbon was located, until he suffered a spinal injury while riding. After the accident, he joined the family business, B., L., and T. Hanna, by now a major grocery and goods brokering firm. Samantha, née Converse, and her parents had journeyed west fromVermont when she was 11; she was of English, possibly Irish, and French Huguenot descent.[2][3]Mark's uncle Kersey Hanna described Mark as a boy as "short, strong and rugged, with a full round figure".[4] Young Mark attended the local public school, which conducted class in the basement of the Presbyterian church.[5] He competed in the local boys' debating society, and on the question of whether the black man had more cause for complaint than the Indian, carried the day arguing for the blacks.[6]In the 1868 presidential election, Hanna supported the Republican, former Union General Ulysses S. Grant. The flood of inflationary greenback currency issued during the war made Rhodes and Company's dealings in the new confederation of Canada difficult; merchants would accept a dollar in paper money as the equivalent of 35 cents in gold. Hanna hoped that Grant, who was elected, would institute policies which would return full value to the currency.[18] The firm built many vessels and also gained interests in a wide variety of firms, which in turn used the Rhodes steamers.[19] Hanna also purchased Cleveland's opera house, allowing it to remain open at times when it could not pay its full rent.[20]During Grant's first four-year term, Hanna began to involve himself in politics. At first his interest was purely local, supporting Republican candidates for municipal and Cuyahoga Countyoffices.[21] In 1869, he was elected to the Cleveland Board of Education, but as he was traveling a good deal for business at the time, was able to attend less than half the meetings.[22] In 1873, disgusted by local scandals and the influence of party bosses, he and other Republicans briefly abandoned the party to elect a Democrat running for mayor of Cleveland on a reform agenda.[2It is uncertain when William McKinley and Mark Hanna first met—neither man in later life could remember the first meeting. McKinley, in 1896, referred to a friendship with Hanna that had lasted over twenty years; Hanna, in 1903, stated after some thought that he had met McKinley before 1876. McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan suggests that the two men may have met as early as 1871, although initially without making much impression on each other.[34]The two men certainly met in 1876, when McKinley, a lawyer, represented a number of coal miners who had rioted following attempts by owners to cut wages. Hanna was one of the mine owners affected by the unrest. The militia, called in by Governor Rutherford Hayes, had fired on the strikers, and 23 miners were arrested and put on trial in Canton, Ohio, the hometown of Major McKinley (as he was often known, for his Civil War service). McKinley was hired to represent them, and only one was convicted.[34][35] McKinley's victory won him the gratitude of labor elements in both major parties, and he won election to Congress later that year. Hanna remembered, "I became intimate with him soon after he entered Congress, and our friendship ripened with each succeeding year."[36]With Cowles' enmity ended by Hanna's sale of the Herald, the latter had little trouble being elected as a district delegate to the 1888 Republican National Convention. Among the delegates at-large were Governor Foraker and Congressman McKinley. Hanna financed many of the arrangements for the Sherman campaign and was widely regarded as its manager. Sherman, as was customary at the time, remained in Washington and did not attend the convention in Chicago. There was widespread speculation in the press that Governor Foraker, nominally a Sherman supporter, would declare a favorite son candidacy or else support Blaine if he entered the race.[33] The convention deadlocked, with Sherman in the lead but unable to secure the nomination.[33] According to Hanna biographer Thomas Beer,At the Republican convention of 1888 an accident displayed Major McKinley favorably to Marcus Hanna. A distinct faction, made up of men from every part of the country, approached him with a suggestion that he let himself be nominated. McKinley refused, and bluntly. He had come there pledged to support John Sherman and he would support John Sherman ... Mr. Hanna's admiration of Major McKinley was profuse. He appreciated men who stuck to a losing bargain.[37]McKinley began to pick up small numbers of votes although not a declared candidate. Hanna became convinced that McKinley was the only Ohioan who could gain the nomination, and by telegram hinted that Sherman should withdraw in the congressman's favor as the only Ohio Republican with a chance at the presidency.[33] Sherman, believing this to be his best chance for election, refused, a decision which Hanna accepted, fighting for Sherman to the end. Hanna was greatly impressed by McKinley's loyal conduct in refusing to begin a run himself. Foraker threw his support to Blaine, though he returned to Sherman when the New Englander did not run. In the end, the nomination fell to former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison. Hanna never forgave what he saw as Foraker's treason. After 1888, there was a strong dislike between the two men, and the separation split the Ohio Republican Party into two factions, a rupture that did not heal until after Hanna's death in 1904. Foraker stated in his memoirs that the break occurred because Hanna bribed black delegates from the South in 1888.[33] However, Ohio newspaper publisher J. B. Morrow contradicted Foraker's account, stating: "I was at the convention in 1888 and know Senator Foraker [as he later became] brought great scandal to the Ohio people who were there and to the delegates with his secret work with Mr. Blaine's friends ... Mr. Hanna became thoroughly angered at what he thought was Senator Foraker's bad faith."[38] According to Horner, Foraker was the more embittered of the two as the years passed, feeling that if it had not been for that dispute, Foraker, not McKinley, might have become president.[39]Harrison was elected president after a campaign in which Hanna fundraised considerably, consoling himself with the thought that though Harrison was an Indianan, he had at least been born in Ohio. Harrison gave Hanna no control of any patronage in return for his fundraising. In the aftermath of Harrison's victory, Hanna determined to bring an Ohioan to the presidency. With Harrison likely to be the Republican candidate in 1892, the first real chance would be in 1896. Sherman would be 73 in 1896, likely considered too old to seek the presidency.[40][41] Hanna had come to admire McKinley; the two men shared many political views. Beginning in 1888, they forged an increasingly close relationship.[42] According to McKinley biographer Margaret Leech:In choosing McKinley as the object on which to lavish his energies, Hanna had not made a purely rational decision. He had been magnetized by a polar attraction. Cynical in his acceptance of contemporary political practices, Hanna was drawn to McKinley's scruples and idealistic standards, like a hardened man of the world who becomes infatuated with virgin innocence.[43]However, Hanna biographer Clarence A. Stern suggested that while the industrialist admired McKinley's loyalty to Sherman, the principal reason that he decided to promote McKinley's career was the congressman's advocacy of high tariffs, which he also favored.[44]Hanna and his allies, such as Congressman Benjamin Butterworth, opposed Foraker's effort to secure a third term as governor in 1889. Foraker gained renomination, but fell in the general election.[45] In November 1889, Hanna traveled to Washington to manage McKinley's campaign for Speaker of the House. The effort failed; another Republican, Thomas B. Reed of Maine, was elected.[42]In 1890 McKinley was defeated for re-election to Congress. This was not seen as a major setback to his career; he was deemed beaten by Democratic gerrymandering in redistricting, and because of his sponsorship of a tariff bill—the increased tariffs had caused prices to rise. In 1891, McKinley proved the consensus choice for the Republican nomination for governor. With McKinley's candidacy needing little of his attention, Hanna spent much of his time working to secure Sherman's re-election by the Ohio Legislature (senators were elected by state legislatures until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913) by raising funds to gain the election of Republican candidates. Hanna traveled as far away from Ohio as New York and Iowa, soliciting funds, some of which went to McKinley, but which for the most part went to the state Republican committee.[45][46]Victories by McKinley in the gubernatorial race and by the Republicans in securing a majority in the legislature in 1891 did not guarantee Sherman another term, as he was challenged for his seat by Foraker. Hanna was instrumental in keeping enough Republican support to secure victory by Sherman in the Republican caucus, assuring his election by the legislature. Hanna hired detectives to find legislators who had gone into hiding and were believed to be Foraker supporters, and saw to it they supported Sherman.[47] Stern notes that the defeat of Foraker "was ascribable largely to the efforts of Hanna".[48] McKinley's victory in what was generally a bad year for Republicans made him a possible presidential contender, and Hanna's involvement in the McKinley and Sherman victories established him as a force in politics. President Harrison attempted to neutralize Hanna, who was ill-disposed to the President and likely to oppose his renomination, by offering to make him treasurer of the Republican National Committee. Hanna declined, feeling it would make him beholden to the administration.[49]
Methodism is characterized by its emphasis on helping the poor and the average person, its very systematic approach to building the person, and the "church" and its missionary spirit.[2] These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, universities, orphanages, soup kitchens, and schools to follow Jesus's command to spread the Good News and serve all people.[3] The Methodist movement is also known for its rich musical tradition. Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church,[4] and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition.Methodists are convinced that building loving relationships with others through social service is a means of working towards the inclusiveness of God's love. Wesleyan Methodists teach that Christ died for all of humanity, not just for a limited group, and thus everyone is entitled to God's grace. Theologically, this view is known as Arminianism, which denies that God has pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists. The Methodist movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. John Wesley himself greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition, and the American Methodist worship in The Book of Offices was based on the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.[5]Early Methodists were drawn from all levels of society, including the aristocracy,[a] but the Methodist preachers took the message to labourers and criminals who tended to be left outside organized religion at that time. In Britain, the Methodist Church had a major impact in the early decades of the making of the working class (1760–1820). In the United States it became the religion of many slaves who later formed "black churches" in the Methodist tradition.Arminianism is based on the theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as the Remonstrants. His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct in some ways from particular teachings of Martin Luther, Zwingli, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers. Jacobus Arminius (Jacobus Hermanszoon) was a student of Beza (successor of Calvin) at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known as a soteriological diversification of ProtestantChristianity.[1] Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the States-General of the Netherlands. The Synod of Dort (1618–19) was called by the States General to consider the Five Articles of Remonstrance. These articles asserted thatsalvation (and condemnation on the day of judgment) was conditioned by the graciously enabled faith (or unbelief) of man;the Atonement, is qualitatively adequate for all men, "yet that no one actually enjoys [experiences] this forgiveness of sins, except the believer..." and thus is limited to only those who trust in Christ;"That man has not saving grace of himself, nor of the energy of his free will," and unaided by the Holy Spirit, no person is able to respond to God’s will;The (Christian) grace "of God is the beginning, continuance, and accomplishment of any good", yet man may resist the Holy Spirit; andbelievers are able to resist sin through grace, and Christ will keep them from falling, but whether they are beyond the possibility of ultimately forsaking God or "becoming devoid of grace", "must be more particularly determined."Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists (See A History of the Baptists Third Edition by Robert G. Torbet) in the 16th century, and the Methodists in the 18th century. Some assert that Universalists and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries were theologically linked with Arminianism. Denominations such as the Anabaptists (beginning in 1525), and Waldensians[2] (pre-Reformation), and other groups prior to the Reformation have also affirmed that each person may choose the contingent response of either resisting God's grace or yielding to it.The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of Hugo Grotius, John Wesley, and others as well. Classical Arminianism, to which Arminius is the main contributor, and Wesleyan Arminianism, to which John Wesley is the main contributor, are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. Some Arminian schools of thought share certain similarities with Semipelagianism, believing the first step of salvation is by human will[3] but classical Arminianism holds that the first step of salvation is the grace of God.[4]Historically, the Council of Orange (529) condemned semi-Pelagian thought, and is accepted by some as a document which can be understood as teaching a doctrine between Augustinianthought and semi-Pelegian thought, making it similar to Arminianism.The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and thehistory of Christian theology. Arminianism is related to Calvinism historically. However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine predestination and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God's allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Put another way, is God's sovereignty shown, in part, through His allowance of free decisions? Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor. [5]Taylor was born in Cambridge, the son of a barber.[1] He was baptized on 15 August 1613. His father was educated and taught him grammar and mathematics. He was then educated at thePerse School, Cambridge, before going to Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge Universitywhere he gained a B.A. in 1630/1 and an M.A. in 1634.[2]The best evidence of his diligence as a student is the enormous learning of which he showed so easy a command in later years. In 1633, although still below the canonical age, he took holy orders, and accepted the invitation of Thomas Risden, a former fellow-student, to supply his place for a short time as lecturer in St Paul's.Rowland Taylor (sometimes spelled "Tayler")[1] (October 6, 1510 – February 9, 1555) was anEnglish Protestant martyr during the Marian Persecutions.At the time of his death by burning at the stake, he was Rector of a small parish in a market town,Hadleigh in Suffolk.
Taylor's early life and educationEdit
Taylor was born in Northumberland. In 1530, he received his LL.B. degree from Cambridge University. From 1531 to 1538 he was principal of Borden Hostel. In 1534 he received the LL.D. from Cambridge, the same year Martin Luther completed his German Bible. One year later, in 1535, William Tyndale was tried and denounced as a heretic for his new English Bible translation. Tyndale was burned at the stake in 1536. Taylor's wife - Margaret Tyndale - was William Tyndale's niece.In 1543 the English Parliament banned Tyndale's English version and all public reading of theBible by laymen. Religious persecution of Protestant clergy, especially by Roman Catholics, intensified in Britain at this time.In 1546 the Council of Trent, an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, decreed that theLatin Vulgate was the authoritative version of the Bible.In the summer of 1547, Taylor was employed as a preacher for the royal visitation within the dioceses of Lincoln, Oxford, Lichfield and Coventry.On August 15, 1547, he became canon of Rochester, the same year during which King Henry VIII had died in January.In 1548, Taylor was appointed archdeacon of Bury St Edmunds and preached at the request of the Lord Mayor at Whitsuntide or Pentecost.Edward VI, who reigned from 1547 to 1553, followed Henry VIII, and in 1549 the Book of Common Prayer became the Protestant liturgical text in England.In 1550, Taylor was called to serve on a commission against Anabaptists. The same year, he also helped to administer the vacant diocese of Norwich.In 1551, at age 41, Taylor was made archdeacon of Exeter in the diocese of Exeter, was also appointed one of the Six Preachers of Canterbury Cathedral and was appointed chancellor to Bishop Nicholas Ridley. His leadership was expanded by serving on a commission to revise theecclesiastical laws.In 1552, he helped administer the vacant diocese of Worcester.Taylor also denounced the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which is the belief that the two elements (bread and wine) taken during Holy Communion, or the Eucharist, actually become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Since the Roman Catholic position is that the Eucharist (and the miracle of transubstantiation) is a sacrament commanded by God, anyone denying it, particularly a cleric or pastor, is considered a heretic. This teaching was opposed universally by the Reformed and Protestant Churches, who maintained that, since a sacrament is a sign, it cannot also be the thing signified. For similar reasons relating to the problem of idolatry, Taylor took issue with the Roman Catholic form of the Mass and received much support from the villagers of Hadleigh.These issues came to a head after Edward VI died (July 6, 1553) and was succeeded by Queen Mary I. In 1554, Mary began a program of re-establishing Catholicism in England. However, the English clergy and Anglican faithful, whose hopes for a Protestant royal succession had been dashed by Mary's imprisonment and execution of Lady Jane Grey, saw it as a matter of English Christian duty to resist this backlash, not least to resist the political ambitions of the king of Spain (Philip II, whom Mary married) to draw England within the sphere of the Holy Roman Empire and its Roman Catholic satellites. Although Mary, as Henry VIII's eldest daughter, was a legitimate successor to Edward VI, England was no longer minded to tolerate a Roman Catholic monarch, and the courage and endurance unto death of men such as Taylor provided the public example which ensured that the Reformation was not in fact overturned, but became established in the realm of England.On March 26, 1554, the Privy Council ordered the arrest of Taylor, and he thus appeared before Bishop Stephen Gardiner. The proceedings against Taylor ran over several years. During this time he was kept in the King's Bench Prison. While in prison he befriended many inmates and was instrumental in many conversions to Anglicanism.January 1555 was an ominous month for Anglican clergy in England. After several years of separation from Roman worship and governance, the accession of Mary I in 1553 and her immediate reversion to Roman Catholic rule in obedience to the pope (an attempt to turn back the Reformation of the English church) led her to unleash her wrath upon those whom she defined as treasonably minded heretics. On January 22, 1555, Rowland Taylor (vicar or rector ofHadleigh) and several other clergy, including John Hooper, were examined by a commission of leading bishops and lawyers. As Lord Chancellor, Gardiner presided at the hearings. Just two days previously, on January 20, Parliament had revived the old statute for burning convicted heretics.One of the men, Edward Crome, recanted and was thus pardoned. William Barlow equivocated and was sent to the Tower of London, but not executed. Rowland Taylor, who remained committed, was probably taken to Compter Prison in London after his examination by Gardiner. Taylor gave a fervent defence of clerical marriage, which put him at odds with the Roman Catholic Church.On January 29, 1555, Taylor was brought before Gardiner again at St Mary's. The next day he was excommunicated and sentenced to death. He was stripped of his clerical garments in a symbolic manner, and offered a last supper with his family.His reaction to his accusers, as recorded by the martyrologist John Foxe, was this:[2]"And although I know, that there is neither justice nor truth to be looked for at my adversaries hands, but rather imprisonment and cruel death: yet know my cause to be so good and righteous, and the truth so strong upon my side, that I will by God's grace go and appear before them and to their beards resist their false doings."
Taylor's final wordsEdit
Taylor was taken back to Hadleigh, where his wife awaited him in the early morning hours at St Botolph's churchyard. They exchanged a few last brief words and Margaret promised to be present for his burning in a couple of days. That same day, Taylor was handed over to the sheriff of Essex at Chelmsford. Before he was handed over, he spoke these words to his family:"I say to my wife, and to my children, The Lord gave you unto me, and the Lord hath taken me from you, and you from me: blessed be the name of the Lord! I believe that they are blessed which die in the Lord. God careth for sparrows, and for the hairs of our heads. I have ever found Him more faithful and favorable, than is any father or husband. Trust ye therefore in Him by the means of our dear Savior Christ's merits: believe, love, fear, and obey Him: pray to Him, for He hath promised to help. Count me not dead, for I shall certainly live, and never die. I go before, and you shall follow after, to our long home."Following Rogers on February 4, and Saunders on the 8th, Taylor became Mary's third Protestant to be burned at the stake. His execution took place on February 9, 1555, at Aldham Common just to the north of Hadleigh. His wife, two daughters, and his son Thomas were present that day.His final words to his son Thomas, as reported by Foxe:"Almighty God bless thee, and give you his Holy Spirit, to be a true servant of Christ, to learn his word, and constantly to stand by his truth all the life long. And my son, see that thou fear God always. Fly from all sin and wicked living. Be virtuous, serve God daily with prayer, and apply thy boke. In anywise see thou be obedient to thy mother, love her, and serve her. Be ruled by her now in thy youth, and follow her good counsel in all things. Beware of lewd company of young men, that fear not God, but followeth their lewd lusts and vain appetites. Flee from whoredom, and hate all filthy lying, remembering that I they father do die in the defense of holy marriage. And another day when God shall bless thee, love and cherish the poor people, and count that thy chief riches to be rich in alms. And when thy mother is waxed old, forsake her not, but provide for her to thy power, and see that she lacks nothing. For so will God bless thee, give thee long life upon earth, and prosperity, which I pray God to grant thee."A local butcher was ordered to set a torch to the wood but resisted. A couple of bystanders finally threw a lighted torch onto the wood. A perhaps sympathetic guard, named Warwick, struck Taylor's head with a halberd, which apparently killed him instantly. The fire consumed his body shortly thereafter. That same day, John Hooper was burned at the stake in Gloucester.The inscription on the 1818 Taylor MonumentAn unhewn stone marks the place of Taylor's death at Aldham Common (just to the north ofHadleigh, where the B1070 Lady Lane meets the A1071 Ipswich Road). Next to the unhewn stone, there is also a monument erected in 1818, and restored by parishioners in 1882.[3][4] The stone is inscribed:1555D.TAYLOR.IN.DEFENDING.THATWAS.GOOD.ATTHIS.PLAS.LEFTHIS.BLODE
Stephen Grover ClevelandMarch 18, 1837Caldwell, New Jersey, U.S.DiedJune 24, 1908 (aged 71)Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.Resting placePrinceton CemeteryPrinceton, New JerseyPolitical partyDemocraticSpouse(s)Frances Folsom (1886–1908, his death)RelationsRose Cleveland (1846–1918) (sister)Philippa Foot (1920–2010)(granddaughter)ChildrenRuth Cleveland (1891–1904)Esther Cleveland (1893–1980)Marion Cleveland (1895–1977)Richard Folsom Cleveland (1897–1974)Francis Grover Cleveland (1903–1995)ProfessionPoliticianLawyerReligionPresbyterianismSignatureStephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908) was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States; as such, he is the only president to serve two non-consecutive terms (1885–1889 and 1893–1897) and to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents. He was the winner of the popular vote for president three times—in 1884, 1888, and 1892—and was the onlyDemocrat elected to the presidency in the era of Republican political domination dating from 1861 to 1913.Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs, Free Silver, inflation, imperialism, and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans. His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era.[1] Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism.[2] He relentlessly fought political corruption, patronage and bossism. Indeed, as a reformer his prestige was so strong that the like-minded wing of the Republican Party, called "Mugwumps", largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election.[3]As his second term began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a severe national depression, which Cleveland was unable to reverse. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. The result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System as well as the Progressive Era.[4]Cleveland was a formidable policymaker and drew a corresponding criticism. His intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions nationwide in addition to the party in Illinois; his support of the gold standard and opposition to Free Silver also alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party.[5] Furthermore, critics complained that he had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term.[5] Even so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term. Biographer Allan Nevins wrote: "in Grover Cleveland the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have. He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not."[6]Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey to Richard Falley Cleveland and Ann Neal Cleveland.[7] Cleveland's father was a Presbyterian minister, originally from Connecticut.[8] and his mother was from Baltimore, the daughter of a bookseller.[9] On his father's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first Cleveland having emigrated to Massachusetts from northeastern England in 1635.[10] On his mother's side, he was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia.[11] He was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named.[12]Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time; he became known as Grover in his adult life.[13] In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York, where Grover spent much of his childhood.[14] Neighbors later described him as "full of fun and inclined to play pranks",[15] and fond of outdoor sports.[16] In 1850, Cleveland's father took a pastorate inClinton, Oneida County, New York, and the family relocated there.[17] Despite his father's dedication to his missionary work, the income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school into a two-year mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville. The experience was valuable but without permanence, and the living conditions quite austere. Grover returned to Clinton and his schooling at the completion of the contract.[18]When the Clinton pastorate proved too arduous, in 1853 Grover's father took an assignment inHolland Patent, New York, near Utica and the family moved again.[19] Not long thereafter Cleveland's father died.[19]
Education and moving west
An early, undated photograph of Grover Cleveland[20]Cleveland received his elementary education at the Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Liberal Academy.[21] After his father died in 1853, he again left school so as to help support his family. Later that year, Cleveland's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher. He returned home to Holland Patent at the end of 1854 and an elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he would promise to become a minister; but Cleveland declined, and in 1855 he decided to move west.[22] He stopped first in Buffalo, New York, where his uncle, Lewis W. Allen gave him a clerical job.[23] Allen was an important man in Buffalo, and he introduced his nephew to influential men there, including the partners in the law firm of Rogers, Bowen, and Rogers.[24] Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm, began to read the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1859.[25]
Early career and the Civil War
Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years, then left the firm in 1862 to start his own practice.[26] In January 1863, he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County.[27] With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863, requiring able-bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute.[25] Cleveland chose the latter course, paying George Benninsky, a thirty-two year-old Polish immigrant, $150 to serve in his place.[28] As a lawyer, Cleveland became known for his single-minded concentration and dedication to hard work.[29] In 1866, he successfully defended some participants in the Fenian raid free of charge.[30] In 1868, Cleveland attracted professional attention for his winning defense of a libel suit against the editor of Buffalo's Commercial Advertiser.[31] During this time, Cleveland assumed a lifestyle of simplicity, taking residence in a plain boarding house; Cleveland dedicated his growing income instead to the support of his mother and younger sisters.[32] While his personal quarters were austere, Cleveland nevertheless enjoyed an active social life and "the easy-going sociability of hotel-lobbies and saloons."[33] He shunned the circles of higher society of Buffalo in which his uncle's family traveled.[34]
Political career in New York
Sheriff of Erie County
Statue of Grover Cleveland outside City Hall in Buffalo, New York.From his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland aligned himself with the Democratic Party.;[35]he had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln, and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats.[36] In 1865, he ran for District Attorney, losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass, the Republican nominee.[29] In 1870, with the help of his friend Oscar Folsom, he secured the Democratic nomination for Sheriff of Erie County.[37] He won the election by a 303-vote margin and took the office of Sherif on January 1, 1871 at age 33.[38] While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $40,000 (US$800 thousand in present terms[39]) over the two-year term.[37]Cleveland's service as sheriff was unremarkable; biographer Rexford Tugwell described Cleveland's time in the office as a waste politically. Cleveland was aware of graft in the sheriff's office during his tenure but chose not to confront it.[40] A notable incident of his term took place on September 6, 1872, and involved the execution of Patrick Morrissey, who had been convicted of murdering his mother.[41] As sheriff, Cleveland was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution or paying a deputy $10 to perform the task.[41] Cleveland, in spite of reservations about the hanging, opted to carry out the duty himself.;[41] he hanged another murderer, John Gaffney, on February 14, 1873.[42]After his term as sheriff ended, Cleveland returned to his law practice, opening a firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell.[43] Bass did not spend much time at the firm, being elected to Congress in 1873, but Cleveland and Bissell soon found themselves at the top of Buffalo's legal community.[44] Up to that point, Cleveland's political career had been honorable but unexceptional. As biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "probably no man in the country, on March 4, 1881, had less thought than this limited, simple, sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as president of the United States."[45]It was during this period that Cleveland began a brief relationship with a widow, Maria Crofts Halpin, and later assumed responsibility for supporting her and a child born at the time. The matter drew notable attention later in his first presidential campaign.[46]
Mayor of Buffalo
In the 1870s, the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office.[47] In 1881 the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians; the Democrats saw the opportunity to gain the votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate.[48] The party leaders approached Cleveland, and he agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo, provided that the rest of the ticket was to his liking.[49] When the more notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket, Cleveland accepted the nomination.[49]Cleveland was elected mayor with 15,120 votes, as against 11,528 for Milton C. Beebe, his opponent.[50] He took office January 2, 1882.Cleveland's term as mayor was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines.[51]Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street-cleaning bill passed by the Common Council.[52] The street-cleaning contract was open for bids, and the Council selected the highest bidder at $422,000, rather than the lowest of $100,000 less, because of the political connections of the bidder.[52] While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo, Mayor Cleveland would have none of it, and replied with a stinging veto message: "I regard it as the culmination of a most bare-faced, impudent, and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people, and to worse than squander the public money".[53] The Council reversed themselves and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder.[54] Cleveland also asked the state legislature to form a Commission to develop a plan to improve the sewer system in Buffalo at a much lower cost than previously proposed locally; this was successfully adopted.[55] For this, and other actions safeguarding public funds, Cleveland's reputation as a leader willing to purge government corruption began to spread beyond Erie County.[56]
Governor of New York
Gubernatorial portrait of Grover Cleveland.New York Democratic party officials began to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor.[57] Daniel Manning, a party insider who admired Cleveland's record, was instrumental in his candidacy.[58] With a split in the state Republican party in 1882, the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage; indeed there were several contenders for that party's nomination.[57] The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry W. Slocum; however, their factions deadlocked, and the convention could not agree on a nominee.[59] Cleveland, in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as the compromise choice.[60] The Republican party remained divided against itself, and in the general election Cleveland emerged the victor, with 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger's 342,464.[61] Cleveland's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election; the Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature.[62]Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to the governor's office; he promptly sent the legislature eight vetos in his first two months in office.[63] The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents.[64] The bill had broad support because the trains' owner, Jay Gould, was unpopular, and his fare increases were widely denounced.[65] Cleveland saw the bill as unjust—Gould had taken over the railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again.[66] Moreover, Cleveland believed that altering Gould's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution.[66]Despite the initial popularity of the measure, the newspapers praised Cleveland's veto.[66]Theodore Roosevelt, then a member of the Assembly, had reluctantly voted for the otherwise objectionable bill, in a desire to punish the unscrupulous railroad barons.[67] After the veto, Roosevelt reversed himself, as did many legislators, and the veto was sustained.[67]Cleveland's defiance of political corruption won him popular acclaim, but also gained him the enmity of the influential Tammany Hall organization in New York City.[68] Tammany, under its boss, John Kelly, had disapproved Cleveland's nomination as governor, and their resistance intensified after Cleveland openly opposed and prevented the re-election of their point man in the State Senate, Thomas F. Grady.[69] Cleveland also steadfastly opposed nominees of the Tammanyites, as well as bills passed as a result of their deal making.[70] The loss of Tammany's support was offset by support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform-minded Republicans who helped Cleveland to pass several laws reforming municipal governments.[71]
Election of 1884
Main article: United States presidential election, 1884
Nomination for president
Main article: 1884 Democratic National ConventionThe Republicans convened in Chicago and nominated former Speaker of the House James G. Blaine of Maine for president on the fourth ballot. Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral.[72] The GOP standard bearer was weakened not only by the alienation of the Mugwumps, but also the Conkling faction, recently disenfranchised by President Arthur.[73] Democratic party leaders saw the Republicans' choice as an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found.[72]An anti-Blaine cartoon presents him as the "tattooed man," with many indelible scandals.An anti-Cleveland cartoon highlights the Halpin scandal.Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front-runner, having been the party's nominee in the contested election of 1876.[74] Tilden, however, was in poor health, and after he declined to be nominated, his supporters shifted to several other contenders.[74] Cleveland was among the leaders in early support, but Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware, Allen G. Thurman of Ohio,Samuel Freeman Miller of Iowa, and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings, along with various favorite sons.[74] Each of the other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the South for his actions during the Civil War; Thurman was generally well liked, but was growing old and infirm, and his views on thesilver question were uncertain.[75] Cleveland, too, had detractors—Tammany remained opposed to him—but the nature of his enemies made him still more friends.[76] Cleveland led on the first ballot, with 392 votes out of 820.[77] On the second ballot, Tammany threw its support behind Butler, but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland, and he was nominated.[78] Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate.[78]
Campaign against Blaine
Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884; indeed, Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals.[79] Cleveland's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved the Democrats' strongest asset.[80] William C. Hudson created Cleveland's contextual campaign slogan "A public office is a public trust." [81] Reform-minded Republicans called "Mugwumps" denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland.[82] The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government.[82] At the same time the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the Greenback-Labor party, led by ex-Democrat Benjamin Butler.[83] In general, Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition.[84]The campaign focused on the candidates' personalities, as each candidate's supporters cast aspersions on their opponents. Cleveland's supporters rehashed the old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad and theUnion Pacific Railway, later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies.[85]Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time Blaine's correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible.[85]On some of the most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written "Burn this letter," giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter!"[86]To help neutralize the effects of his own past, Blaine relied on surrogates as well as Tammany to counter Cleveland's image of superior morality.[73] Republicans, aided by sermons from an opportunistic preacher named George H. Ball, resurrected allegations that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo, and chanted "Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?".[87]When confronted with the emerging scandal, Cleveland's immediately instructed his supporters to "Above all, tell the truth." Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin, the woman who claimed he fathered her child, named Oscar Folsom Cleveland. Halpin was involved with several men at the time, including Cleveland's friend and law partner, Oscar Folsom, for whom the child was also named. Cleveland did not know which man was the father, and is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among The Irish, a significant group in three of the swing states, did appear inclined to support Blaine until a spokesman, Samuel D. Burchard, gave a speech pivotal for the Democrats, denouncing them as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion".[92] The Democrats spread the word of this implied Catholic insult on the eve of the election; Blaine also attended a well publicized dinner with many of New York City's wealthiest at the lavish Delmonico's restaurant - considered importune during the economic downturn.[93]After the votes were count, Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by 1200 votes.[94] While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of a percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182.[94] Following the electoral victory, the "Ma, Ma ..." attack phrase gained a classic rejoinder: "Gone to the White House. Ha! Ha! Ha!"[95]Foreign policy, 1885–1889
Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations.[127] Cleveland's Secretary of State,Thomas F. Bayard, negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck a conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England's Republican Senators.[128] Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration theBerlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo.[129]
Civil rights
Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners (and nearly all white Southerners) sawReconstruction as a failed experiment, and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans.[130]Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C. and appointed another black man to replace Douglas upon his resignation.[130]Henry L. Dawes wrote the Dawes Act, which Cleveland signed into law.Although Cleveland had condemned the "outrages" against Chinese immigrants, he believed that Chinese immigrants were unwilling to assimilate into white society.[131] Secretary of State Bayardnegotiated an extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act, and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the Scott Act, written by Congressman William Lawrence Scott, which prevented the return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States.[132] The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress, and Cleveland signed it into law on October 1, 1888.[132]
Indian policy
Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state, saying in his first inaugural address that "[t]his guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights."[133] He encouraged the idea of cultural assimilation, pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act, which provided for distribution of Indian lands to individual members of tribes, rather than having them continued to be held in trust for the tribes by the federal government.[133] While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it.[134] Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society, but its ultimate effect was to weaken the tribal governments and allow individual Indians to sell land and keep the money.[133]In the month before Cleveland's 1885 inauguration, President Arthur opened four million acres ofWinnebago and Crow Creek Indian lands in the Dakota Territory to white settlement by executive order.[135] Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them.[135] Cleveland believed Arthur's order to be in violation of treaties with the tribes, and rescinded it on April 17 of that year, ordering the settlers out of the territory.[135]Cleveland sent in Eighteenth Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General Philip Sheridan to investigate the matter.[135]
Marriage and children
Mrs. Frances Folsom ClevelandCleveland entered the White House as a bachelor, and his sister Rose Cleveland joined him, to act as hostess for the first two years of his administration.[136] In 1885 the daughter of Cleveland's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington.[137] Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College; when she returned to school, President Cleveland received her mother's permission to correspond with her and they were soon engaged to be married.[137]On June 2, 1886, Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the Blue Room at the White House.[138] He was the second president to wed while in office, and the only president married in the White House. This marriage was unusual, since Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom's estate and had supervised Frances' upbringing after her father's death; nevertheless the public took no exception to the match.[139] At twenty-one years old, Frances Folsom Cleveland was the youngest First Lady in history, and the public soon warmed to her beauty and warm personality.[140] The Clevelands had five children: Ruth (1891–1904); Esther (1893–1980); Marion (1895–1977); Richard Folsom (1897–1974); and Francis Grover (1903–1995). British philosopher Philippa Foot was their granddaughter.
Administration and Cabinet
Cleveland's first cabinet.Front row, left to right: Thomas F. Bayard, Cleveland,Daniel Manning, Lucius Q. C. LamarBack row, left to right: William F. Vilas, William C. Whitney, William C. Endicott, Augustus H. GarlandChief Justice Melville FullerMain article: List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland
Supreme Court appointments
During his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. The first, Lucius Q.C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi Senator who served in Cleveland's Cabinet as Interior Secretary. When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887. While Lamar had been well liked as a Senator, his service under the Confederacy two decades earlier caused many Republicans to vote against him. Lamar's nomination was confirmed by the narrow margin of 32 to 28.[141]Chief Justice Morrison Waite died a few months later, and Cleveland nominated Melville Fuller to fill his seat on April 30, 1888. Cleveland had previously offered to nominate Fuller to the Civil Service Commission, but Fuller had declined to leave his Chicago law practice; however, Fuller accepted the Supreme Court nomination. The Senate Judiciary Committee spent several months examining the little-known nominee, but the Senate ultimately confirmed the nomination 41 to 20.[142][143]
Other judicial appointments
Cleveland nominated 41 lower federal court judges in addition to his four Supreme Court justices; this included two judges to the United States circuit courts, nine judges to the United States Courts of Appeals,and 30 judges to the United States district courts. Because Cleveland served terms both before and after Congress eliminated the circuit courts in favor of the Courts of Appeals, he is one of only two presidents to have appointed judges to both bodies. The other, Benjamin Harrison, was in office at the time that the change was made. Thus, all of Cleveland's appointments to the circuit courts were made in his first term, and all of his appointments to the Courts of Appeals were made in his second.
Election of 1888 and return to private life
Defeated by Harrison
Main article: United States presidential election, 1888Cleveland-Thurman campaign posterResults of the 1888 ElectionThe Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana for president and Levi P. Morton of New York for vice president. Cleveland was easily renominated at the Democratic convention inSt. Louis.[144] Vice President Hendricks died in 1885, so the Democrats chose Allen G. Thurmanof Ohio to be Cleveland's running mate.[144]The Republicans gained the upper hand in the campaign, as Cleveland's campaign was poorly managed by Calvin S. Brice and William H. Barnum, whereas Harrison had engaged more aggressive fundraisers and tacticians in Matt Quay and John Wanamaker.[145]The Republicans campaigned heavily on the tariff issue, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North.[146] Further, the Democrats in New York were divided over the gubernatorial candidacy of David B. Hill, weakening Cleveland's support in that swing state.[147]As in 1884, the election focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, andIndiana. Unlike that year, when Cleveland triumphed in all four, in 1888 he won only two, losing his home state of New York by 14,373 votes.[148] The Republicans won Indiana, largely as the result of a fraudulent voting practice known as Blocks of Five.[149] Republican victory in that state, where Cleveland lost by just 2,348 votes, was sufficient to propel Harrison to victory, despite his loss of the nationwide popular vote.[148] Cleveland continued his duties diligently until the end of the term and began to look forward to return to private life.[150]
Private citizen for four years
As Frances Cleveland left the White House, she told a staff member, "Now, Jerry, I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, for I want to find everything just as it is now, when we come back again." When asked when she would return, she responded, "We are coming back four years from today."[151] In the meantime, the Clevelands moved to New York City where Cleveland took a position with the law firm of Bangs, Stetson, Tracy, and MacVeigh; this was more of an office sharing arrangement, though quite compatible. Cleveland's income was not high, but his law practice was moderate; he spent considerable time at the couple's vacation home Gray Gables at Buzzard Bay, where fishing became Cleveland's obsession.[152]While they lived in New York, the Clevelands' first child, Ruth, was born in 1891.[153]The Harrison administration worked with Congress to pass the McKinley Tariff, an aggressively protectionist measure and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which increased money backed by silver;[154] these were among policies Cleveland deplored as dangerous to the nation's financial health.[155] At first he refrained from criticizing his successor, but by 1891 Cleveland felt compelled to speak out, addressing his concerns in an open letter to a meeting of reformers in New York.[156] The "silver letter" thrust Cleveland's name back into the spotlight just as the 1892 election was approaching.[157]
Election of 1892
Main article: United States presidential election, 1892
Democratic nomination
Cleveland's enduring reputation as chief executive and his recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination.[158] His leading opponent was David B. Hill, a Senator for New York.[159] Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party—silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall—but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination.[159] Despite some desperate maneuvering by Hill, Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot at the convention in Chicago.[160] For vice president, the Democrats chose to balance the ticket with Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois, a silverite.[161] Although the Cleveland forces preferred Isaac P. Gray of Indiana for vice president, they accepted the convention favorite.[162] As a supporter ofgreenbacks and Free Silver to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in the rural districts, Stevenson balanced the otherwise hard-money, gold-standard ticket headed by Cleveland.[163]
Campaign against Harrison
Results of the 1892 electionThe Republicans re-nominated President Harrison, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. Unlike the turbulent and controversial elections of 1876, 1884, and 1888, the 1892 election was, according to Cleveland biographer Allan Nevins, "the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation",[164] in part because Harrison's wife, Caroline, was dying of tuberculosis.[165] Harrison did not personally campaign at all. Following Caroline Harrison's death on October 25, two weeks before the national election, Cleveland and all of the other candidates stopped campaigning, thus making Election Day a somber and quiet event for the whole country as well as the candidates.The issue of the tariff worked to the Republicans' advantage in 1888, but the legislative revisions of the past four years made imported goods so expensive that now many voters favored tariff reform and were skeptical of big business.[166] Many westerners, traditionally Republican voters, defected to James Weaver, the candidate of the new Populist Party. Weaver promised Free Silver, generous veterans' pensions, and an eight-hour work day.[167] The Tammany Hall Democrats adhered to the national ticket, allowing a united Democratic party to carry New York.[168] At the campaign's end, many Populists and labor supporters endorsed Cleveland after an attempt by Carnegie Corporation to break the union during the Homestead strike in Pittsburgh and after a similar conflict between big business and labor at the Tennessee Coal and Iron Co.[169] The final result was a victory for Cleveland by wide margins in both the popular and electoral votes, and it was Cleveland's third consecutive popular vote plurality win.[170]
Second term as president (1893–1897)
Economic panic and the silver issue
Cleveland's humiliation by Gorman and the sugar trustShortly after Cleveland's second term began, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute economic depression.[171] The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver, and Cleveland called Congress into special session to deal with the problem.[172] The debate over the coinage was as heated as ever, but the effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repealing the coinage provisions of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act.[172] Even so, the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago, and the House of Representatives debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin.[173] In the Senate, the repeal of silver coinage was equally contentious. Cleveland, forced against his better judgment to lobby the Congress for repeal, convinced enough Democrats, and along with eastern Republicans, they formed a 48–37 majority for repeal.[174] Depletion of the Treasury's gold reserves continued nonetheless, but at a lesser rate, and subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold.[175] At the time the repeal seemed a minor setback to silverites, but it marked the beginning of the end of silver as a basis for American currency.[176]
Tariff reform
Having succeeded in reversing the Harrison administration's silver policy, Cleveland sought next to reverse the effects of the McKinley tariff. The Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act was introduced by West Virginian Representative William L. Wilson in December 1893.[177] After lengthy debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin.[178] The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on raw materials.[179] The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an income tax of two percent on income above $4,000[179] (US$104 thousand in present terms[39]).The bill was next considered in the Senate, where it faced stronger opposition from key Democrats led by Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland, who insisted on more protection for their states' industries than the Wilson bill allowed.[180] The bill passed the Senate, but with more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms.[181] The Sugar Trust in particular lobbied for changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer.[182] Cleveland was outraged with the final bill, and denounced it as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by trusts and business interests.[183] Even so, he believed it was an improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law without his signature.[179]
Voting rights
In 1892, Cleveland had campaigned against the Force Bill,[184] which would have strengthened the voting rights protections of the Enforcement Act of 1871. That law provided for a detailed federal supervision of the electoral process, from registration to the certification of returns. Cleveland succeeded in ushering in its repeal in 1894 (ch. 25, 28 Stat. 36)."[185] The pendulum thus swung from attempting to protect voting rights more strongly to repealing protections of voting rights; this in turn led to unsuccessful attempts to have the federal courts protect voting rights in Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 475 (1903), and Giles v. Teasley, 193 U.S. 146 (1904).John T. Morgan, Senator from Alabama, opposed Cleveland on Free Silver, the tariff, and the Hawaii treaty, saying of Cleveland that "I hate the ground that man walks on."[186]
Labor unrest
The Panic of 1893 had damaged labor conditions across the United States, and the victory of anti-silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers.[187] A group of workingmen led byJacob S. Coxey began to march east toward Washington, D.C. to protest Cleveland's policies.[187]This group, known as Coxey's Army, agitated in favor of a national roads program to give jobs to workingmen, and a weakened currency to help farmers pay their debts.[187] By the time they reached Washington, only a few hundred remained, and when they were arrested the next day for walking on the lawn of the United States Capitol, the group scattered.[187] Coxey's Army was never a threat to the government, but it showed a growing dissatisfaction in the West with Eastern monetary policies.[188]
Pullman Strike
The Pullman Strike had a significantly greater impact than Coxey's Army. A strike began against the Pullman Company over low wages and twelve-hour workdays, and sympathy strikes, led byAmerican Railway Union leader Eugene V. Debs, soon followed.[189] By June 1894, 125,000 railroad workers were on strike, paralyzing the nation's commerce.[190] Because the railroads carried the mail, and because several of the affected lines were in federal receivership, Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate.[191] Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court, and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent federal troops into Chicago and 20 other rail centers.[192] "If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago," he proclaimed, "that card will be delivered."[193] Most governors supported Cleveland except Democrat John P. Altgeld of Illinois, who became his bitter foe in 1896. Leading newspapers of both parties applauded Cleveland's actions, but the use of troops hardened the attitude of organized labor toward his administration.[194]Just before the 1894 election, Cleveland was warned by an advisor:"We are on the eve of very dark night, unless a return of commercial prosperity relieves popular discontent with what they believe Democratic incompetence to make laws, and consequently with Democratic Administrations anywhere and everywhere."[195]The warning was appropriate, for the Republicans won their biggest landslide in decades, taking full control of the House, while the Populists lost most of their support. However, Cleveland's factional enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in state after state, including full control in Illinois and Michigan, and made major gains in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states. Wisconsin and Massachusetts were two of the few states that remained under the control of Cleveland's allies. The opposition Democrats were close to controlling two thirds of the vote at the 1896 national convention, which they needed to nominate their own candidate. They were not united, however, and had no national leader, as Illinois governor John Peter Altgeld had been born in Germany and was ineligible to be nominated for president.[196]
Foreign policy, 1893–1897
Hawaii
"I suppose that right and justice should determine the path to be followed in treating this subject. If national honesty is to be disregarded and a desire for territorial expansion or dissatisfaction with a form of government not our own ought to regulate our conduct, I have entirely misapprehended the mission and character of our government and the behavior which the conscience of the people demands of their public servants."Cleveland's message to Congress on the Hawaiian question, December 18, 1893.[197]When Cleveland took office he faced the question of Hawaiian annexation. In his first term, he had supported free trade with Hawai'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor.[129] In the intervening four years, Honolulu businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government; in early 1893 they overthrew her, set up a republican government under Sanford B. Dole, and sought to join the United States.[198] The Harrison administration had quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval.[198] Five days after taking office on March 9, 1893, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawai'i to investigate the conditions there.[199]Cleveland agreed with Blount's report, which found the populace to be opposed to annexation.[199] Liliuokalani initially refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, saying that she would either execute or banish the current government in Honolulu, and Dole's government refused to yield their position.[200] By December 1893, the matter was still unresolved, and Cleveland referred the issue to Congress.[200] In his message to Congress, Cleveland rejected the idea of annexation and encouraged the Congress to continue the American tradition of non-intervention (see excerpt at right).[197] The Senate, under Democratic control but opposed Cleveland, and produced the Morgan Report, which contradicted Blount's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair.[201] Cleveland dropped all talk of reinstating the Queen, and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the new Republic of Hawaii.[202]
Venezuela: crisis with Britain
Closer to home, Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that not only prohibited new European colonies, but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere.[203] When Britain and Venezuela disagreed over the boundary between the latter nation and the colony of British Guiana, Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney protested.[204] British prime minister Lord Salisbury and the British ambassador to Washington, Julian Pauncefote misjudged the gravity the American government placed on the dispute, prolonging the crisis before ultimately accepting the American demand for arbitration.[205][206] A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the matter, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.[207] By standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of a colonial power, Cleveland improved relations with the United States' southern neighbors, but the cordial manner in which the negotiations were conducted also made for good relations with Britain.[208]
Cancer
Oil painting of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1899 by Anders ZornIn the midst of the fight for repeal of Free Silver coinage in 1893, Cleveland sought the advice of the White House doctor, Dr. O'Reilly, about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater-like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland's hard palate. Samples of the tumor were sent anonymously to the army medical museum. The diagnosis was not a malignantcancer, but instead an epithelioma.[209]Cleveland decided to have surgery secretly, to avoid further panic that might worsen the financial depression.[210] The surgery occurred on July 1, to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for the upcoming Congressional session.[211] Under the guise of a vacation cruise, Cleveland and his surgeon, Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. The surgeons operated aboard the Oneida, a yacht owned by Cleveland's friend E. C. Benedict, as it sailed off Long Island.[212] The surgery was conducted through the president's mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery.[213]The team, sedating Cleveland with nitrous oxide and ether, successfully removed parts of hisupper left jaw and hard palate.[213] The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland's mouth disfigured.[214] During another surgery, Cleveland was fitted with a hard rubber dental prosthesis that corrected his speech and restored his appearance.[214] A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press placated.[215] Even when a newspaper story appeared giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland's vacation.[214] In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the Oneida, Dr. William W. Keen, wrote an article detailing the operation.[216]Cleveland enjoyed many years of life after the tumor was removed, and there was some debate as to whether it was actually malignant. Several doctors, including Dr. Keen, stated after Cleveland's death that the tumor was a carcinoma.[216] Other suggestions includedameloblastoma[217] or a benign salivary mixed tumor (also known as a pleomorphic adenoma).[218] In the 1980s, analysis of the specimen finally confirmed the tumor to be verrucous carcinoma,[219] a low-grade epithelial cancer with a low potential for metastasis.[209]
Administration and Cabinet
Cleveland's last cabinet.Front row, left to right: Daniel S. Lamont, Richard Olney, Cleveland, John G. Carlisle, Judson HarmonBack row, left to right: David R. Francis, William L. Wilson, Hilary A. Herbert, Julius S. MortonJudicial appointments
Main article: List of federal judges appointed by Grover ClevelandThe objections of Senator David B. Hilldefeated two of Cleveland's Supreme Court nominees.Cleveland's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term. In 1893, after the death of Samuel Blatchford, Cleveland nominatedWilliam B. Hornblower to the Court.[220] Hornblower, the head of a New York City law firm, was thought to be a qualified appointee, but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator David B. Hill his enemy.[220] Further, Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee, leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved.[220] The Senate rejected Hornblower's nomination on January 15, 1894, by a vote of 30 to 24.[220]Cleveland continued to defy the Senate by next appointing Wheeler Hazard Peckham another New York attorney who had opposed Hill's machine in that state.[221] Hill used all of his influence to block Peckham's confirmation, and on February 16, 1894, the Senate rejected the nomination by a vote of 32 to 41.[221] Reformers urged Cleveland to continue the fight against Hill and to nominate Frederic R. Coudert, but Cleveland acquiesced in an inoffensive choice, that of SenatorEdward Douglass White of Louisiana, whose nomination was accepted unanimously.[221] Later, in 1896, another vacancy on the Court led Cleveland to consider Hornblower again, but he declined to be nominated.[222] Instead, Cleveland nominated Rufus Wheeler Peckham, the brother of Wheeler Hazard Peckham, and the Senate confirmed the second Peckham easily.[222]
States admitted to the Union
In Cleveland's first term, no new states had been admitted in more than a decade, owing to Congressional Democrats' reluctance to admit states that they believed would send Republican members. When Harrison took office, he and the Republican Congress admitted six states—North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming—all of which were expected to send Republican delegations. Utah, however, was believed to be Democratic. This, combined with uncertainty about Mormon polygamy (disavowed in 1890), led it to be excluded from the new states. When Cleveland won election to a second term, he and the Democratic majority in the53rd United States Congress passed an Enabling Act in 1894 that permitted Utah to apply for statehood.[223] Utah joined the Union on January 4, 1896.
1896 election and retirement
Cleveland in 1903 at age 66 by Frederick GutekunstCleveland's agrarian and silverite enemies gained control of the Democratic party in 1896, repudiated his administration and the gold standard, and nominated William Jennings Bryan on aSilver Platform.[224][225] Cleveland silently supported the Gold Democrats' third-party ticket that promised to defend the gold standard, limit government, and oppose high tariffs, but declined to accept their nomination for a third term.[226] The party won only 100,000 votes in the general election, and William McKinley, the Republican nominee, triumphed easily over Bryan.[227]Agrarians would later nominate Bryan again in 1900, but in 1904 the conservatives, with Cleveland's support, regained control of the Democratic Party and nominated Alton B. Parker.[228]Outgoing President Grover Cleveland, at right, stands nearby as William McKinley is sworn in as president by Chief Justice Melville Fuller.After leaving the White House on March 4, 1897, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate,Westland Mansion, in Princeton, New Jersey.[229] For a time he was a trustee of Princeton University, and was one of the majority of trustees who preferred Dean West's plans for the Graduate School and undergraduate living over those of Woodrow Wilson, then president of the university.[230] Cleveland consulted occasionally with President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), but was financially unable to accept the chairmanship of the commission handling theCoal Strike of 1902.[231] Cleveland still made his views known in political matters. In a 1905 article in The Ladies Home Journal, Cleveland weighed in on the women's suffrage movement, writing that "sensible and responsible women do not want to vote. The relative positions to be assumed by men and women in the working out of our civilization were assigned long ago by a higher intelligence."[232]Cleveland's health had been declining for several years, and in the autumn of 1907 he fell seriously ill.[233] In 1908, he suffered a heart attack and died.[233] His last words were "I have tried so hard to do right."[234] He is buried in the Princeton Cemetery of the Nassau Presbyterian Church.[235]
Honors and memorials
$1000 Gold Certificate (1934) depicting Grover Cleveland.In his first term in office, Cleveland sought a summer house to escape the heat and smells of Washington, D.C., but needed to remain near the capital. Acting in secret, he located a house, Oak View (or Oak Hill), in a rural upland part of the District of Columbia, and bought it in 1886. Although he sold Oak View upon leaving the White House (the first time), the area became known as Cleveland Park, which name it still bears. The Clevelands are depicted in local murals.[236]Grover Cleveland Hall at Buffalo State College in Buffalo, New York. Cleveland Hall houses the offices of the college president, vice presidents, and other administrative functions and student services. Cleveland was a member of the first board of directors of the then Buffalo Normal School.[237] Grover Cleveland Middle School in his birthplace, Caldwell, New Jersey, was named for him, as is Grover Cleveland High School in Buffalo, New York, and the town of Cleveland, Mississippi. Mount Cleveland, a volcano in Alaska, is also named after him.[238] In 1895 he became the first U.S. President who was filmed.[239]Cleveland's portrait was on the U.S. $1000 bill of series 1928 and series 1934. He also appeared on the first few issues of the $20 Federal Reserve Notes from 1914. Since he was both the 22nd and 24th president, he was featured on two separate dollar coins released in 2012 as part of thePresidential $1 Coin Act of 2005.In 2006, Free New York, a nonprofit and nonpartisan research group, began raising funds to purchase the former Fairfield Library in Buffalo, New York and transform it into the Grover Cleveland Presidential Library & Museum
"Wilhelm II" and "Kaiser Wilhelm II" redirect here. For other uses, see Wilhelm II (disambiguation)and Kaiser Wilhelm II (disambiguation).Wilhelm IIWilhelm II in 1902German Emperor; King of PrussiaReign15 June 1888 – 9 November 1918PredecessorFrederick IIISuccessorMonarchy abolishedFriedrich Ebert, President of GermanySpouse1. Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, 1881–1921 (her death)2. Hermine Reuss of Greiz, 1922–1941 (his death)IssueWilliam, Crown Prince of Germany and PrussiaPrince Eitel FriedrichPrince AdalbertPrince August WilhelmPrince OskarPrince JoachimPrincess Viktoria LuiseFull nameGerman: Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor AlbertFrederick William Victor AlbertHouseHouse of HohenzollernFatherFrederick III, German EmperorMotherVictoria, Princess RoyalBorn27 January 1859Crown Prince's Palace, Berlin, PrussiaDied4 June 1941 (aged 82)Doorn, NetherlandsBurialMausoleum at Huis DoornSignatureReligionEvangelical Christian ChurchWilhelm II or William II (German: Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albrecht von Preußen; Frederick William Victor Albert of Prussia; 27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941) was the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. He was the eldest grandson of the British Queen Victoria and related to many monarchs and princes of Europe, two notable contemporary relations being his first cousin King George V of the United Kingdom, founder of the House of Windsor, and his second cousin Tsar Nicholas II of the House of Romanov, the last ruler of the Russian Empire before the Russian Revolution of 1917 which deposed the monarchy.Crowned in 1888, he dismissed the Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose "New Course" in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914 that led to the First World War. Bombastic and impetuous, he sometimes made tactless pronouncements on sensitive topics without consulting his ministers, culminating in a disastrous Daily Telegraph interview that cost him most of his power in 1908. His top generals, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, dictated policy during the First World War with little regard for the civilian government. An ineffective war leader, he lost the support of the army, abdicated in November 1918, and fled to exile in the Netherlands.
Biography
Wilhelm was born on 27 January 1859 at the Crown Prince's Palace in Berlin to Prince Frederick William of Prussia (the future Frederick III) and his wife, Victoria, Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of Britain's Queen Victoria. At the time of his birth, his great-uncle Frederick William IVwas king of Prussia, and his grandfather and namesake Wilhelm was acting as Regent. He was the first grandchild of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, but more importantly, as the first son of the Crown Prince of Prussia, Wilhelm was from 1861 second in the line of succession to Prussia, and also, after 1871, to the newly created German Empire, which, according to the constitution of the German Empire, was ruled by the Prussian King.Wilhelm with his father, in Scots costume, in 1862A traumatic breech birth left him with a withered left arm due to Erb's palsy, making his left arm about 6 inches (15 centimeters) shorter than his right arm, which he tried with some success to conceal. In many photos he carries a pair of white gloves in his left hand to make the arm seem longer, holds his left hand with his right, or has his crippled arm on the hilt of a sword or holding a cane to give the effect of a useful limb posed at a dignified angle. Historians have suggested that this disability affected his emotional development.[1]
Early years
In 1863 Wilhelm was taken to England to be present at the wedding of his Uncle Bertie, (later King Edward VII), and Princess Alexandra of Denmark. William attended the ceremony in a Highland costume, complete with a small toy dirk. During the ceremony the four year old became restless. His eighteen year old Uncle Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, charged with keeping an eye on him, told him to be quiet, but Wilhelm drew his dirk and threatened Alfred. When Alfred attempted to subdue the rebel by force, Wilhelm bit him on the leg. His Grandmother, Queen Victoria, missed seeing the fracas; to her Wilhelm remained "a clever, dear, good little child, the great favorite of my beloved Vicky.[2]His mother, Vicky, was obsessed by his damaged arm. She blamed herself for the child's handicap and insisted that he become a good rider. The thought that he, as Heir to the Throne, should not be able to ride was intolerable to her. Riding lesson began when Wilhelm was eight and was a matter of endurance for Wilhelm. Over and over, the weeping prince was set on his horse and compelled to go through the paces. He fell off time after time but despite his tears was set on its back again. After weeks of torture he finally got it right and was able to maintain his balance.[3]Wilhelm, from six years of age, was tutored and heavily influenced by the 39-year-old teacher Georg Hinzpeter.[4] "Hinzpeter," he later wrote, "was really a good fellow. Whether he was the right tutor for me, I dare not decide. The torments inflicted on me, in this pony riding, must be attributed to my mother."[3]As a teenager he was educated at Kassel at the Friedrichsgymnasium. In January 1877 Wilhelm finished high school and on his eighteenth birthday received as a present from his grandmother, Queen Victoria, the Order of the Garter. After Kassel he spent four terms at the University of Bonn, studying law and politics. He became a member of the exclusive Corps Borussia Bonn.[5] Wilhelm possessed a quick intelligence, but unfortunately this was often overshadowed by a cantankerous temper.Prussian RoyaltyHouse of HohenzollernWilhelm IIChildren Crown Prince Wilhelm Prince Eitel Friedrich Prince Adalbert Prince August Wilhelm Prince Oskar Prince Joachim Victoria Louise, Duchess of BrunswickAs a scion of the Royal house of Hohenzollern, Wilhelm was exposed from an early age to the military society of the Prussian aristocracy. This had a major impact on him and, in maturity, Wilhelm was seldom seen out of uniform. The hyper-masculine military culture of Prussia in this period did much to frame his political ideals and personal relationships.Crown Prince Frederick was viewed by his son with a deeply felt love and respect. His father's status as a hero of the wars of unification was largely responsible for the young Wilhelm's attitude, as in the circumstances in which he was raised; close emotional contact between father and son was not encouraged. Later, as he came into contact with the Crown Prince's political opponents, Wilhelm came to adopt more ambivalent feelings toward his father, given the perceived influence of Wilhelm's mother over a figure who should have been possessed of masculine independence and strength. Wilhelm also idolised his grandfather, Wilhelm I, and he was instrumental in later attempts to foster a cult of the first German Emperor as "Wilhelm the Great".[6] However, he had a distant relationship with his mother.Despite his parents' (especially his mother's), efforts to educate their son in British attitudes towards democracy, he favoured his German tutors in aspiring to autocratic rule. He thus became alienated from his parents, suspecting them of putting Britain's interests first. The German Emperor, Wilhelm I, watched as his grandson, guided principally by the Crown Princess Victoria, grew to manhood. When Wilhelm was nearing twenty-one the Emperor decided it was time his grandson should begin the military phase of his preparation for the throne. He was assigned as a lieutenant to the First Regiment of Foot Guards, stationed at Potsdam. "In the Guards," Wilhelm said, "I really found my family, my friends, my interests--everything of which I had up to that time had to do without." As a boy and a student, his manner had been polite and agreeable; as an officer, he began to strut and speak brusquely in the tone he deemed appropriate for a Prussian officer.[7]In many ways, Wilhelm was a victim of his inheritance and of Otto von Bismarck's machinations. Both sides of his family had suffered from mental illness, and this may explain his emotional instability.[citation needed] When Wilhelm was in his early twenties, Bismarck tried to separate him from his parents (who opposed Bismarck and his policies) with some success. Bismarck planned to use the young prince as a weapon against his parents in order to retain his own political dominance. Wilhelm thus developed a dysfunctional relationship with his parents, but especially with his English mother. In an outburst in April 1889, Wilhelm angrily implied that "an English doctor killed my father, and an English doctor crippled my arm – which is the fault of my mother", who allowed no German physicians to attend to herself or her immediate family.[8]As a young man, Wilhelm fell in love with one of his maternal first cousins, Princess Elisabeth of Hesse-Darmstadt. She, however, turned him down, and would, in time, marry into the Russian imperial family. In 1880, however, Wilhelm became engaged to Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, known as "Dona". The couple married on 27 February 1881, and would remain married for forty years, until her death in 1921. In a period of ten years, between 1882 and 1892, Augusta Victoria would bear Wilhelm seven children, six sons and a daughter.[9]Beginning in 1884, Bismarck began advocating that Kaiser Wilhelm send his grandson on various diplomatic missions, a privilege denied to the Crown Prince. That year, Prince Wilhelm was sent to the court of Tsar Alexander III in St. Petersburg to attend the coming of age ceremony of the sixteen-year-old Tsarevich Nicholas. However Wilhelm's behavior did little to ingratiate himself to the tsar. Two years later, Kaiser Wilhelm I took Prince Wilhelm on trip to meet with the Austro-Hungarian emperor, Franz Joseph. In 1886, also, thanks to Herbert von Bismarck, the son of the Chancellor, Prince Wilhelm began to be trained twice a week at the Foreign Ministry. One privilege was denied to Prince Wilhelm: to represent Germany at his maternal grandmother, Queen Victoria's, Golden Jubilee Celebrations in London in 1887.[citation needed]
Next to the throne
The German Emperor Wilhelm I died in Berlin on 9 March 1888, and Prince Wilhelm's father was proclaimed Emperor as Frederick III. He was already suffering from an incurable throat cancerand spent all 99 days of his reign fighting the disease before dying. On 15 June of that same year, his 29-year-old son succeeded him as German Emperor and King of Prussia.Although in his youth he had been a great admirer of Otto von Bismarck, Wilhelm's characteristic impatience soon brought him into conflict with the "Iron Chancellor", the dominant figure in the foundation of his empire. The new Emperor opposed Bismarck's careful foreign policy, preferring vigorous and rapid expansion to protect Germany's "place in the sun." Furthermore, the young Emperor had come to the throne with the determination that he was going to rule as well as reign, unlike his grandfather, who had largely been content to leave day-to-day administration to Bismarck.Early conflicts between Wilhelm II and his chancellor soon poisoned the relationship between the two men. Bismarck believed that Wilhelm was a lightweight who could be dominated, and he showed scant respect for Wilhelm's policies in the late 1880s. The final split between monarch and statesman occurred soon after an attempt by Bismarck to implement a far-reaching anti-Socialist law in early 1890.
Break with Bismarck on labour policy
In this photo of Wilhelm, his right hand is holding his left hand, which was affected byErb's palsy."Dropping the Pilot"It was during this time that Bismarck, after gaining an absolute majority in favour of his policies in the Reichstag, decided to make the anti-Socialist laws permanent. His Kartell, the majority of the amalgamated Conservative Party and the National Liberal Party, favoured making the laws permanent, with one exception: the police power to expel Socialist agitators from their homes. This power had been used excessively at times against political opponents, and the National Liberal Party was unwilling to pass the expulsion clause in the first place. Bismarck would not give his assent to a modified bill, so the Kartell split over this issue. The Conservatives would support the bill only in its entirety and threatened to and eventually did veto the entire bill.As the debate continued, Wilhelm became more and more interested in social problems, especially the treatment of mine workers who went on strike in 1889. Following his policy of active participation in government, he routinely interrupted Bismarck in Council to make clear where he stood on social policy. Bismarck sharply disagreed with Wilhelm's policy and worked to circumvent it. Even if Wilhelm supported the altered anti-Socialist bill, Bismarck pushed for his support to veto the bill in its entirety, but when Bismarck's arguments failed to convince Wilhelm, the Chancellor (uncharacteristically) blurted out his motive for having the bill fail: he wanted the Socialists to agitate until a violent clash occurred, which could be used as a pretext to crush them. Wilhelm replied that he would not open his reign with a bloody campaign against his subjects. "But it would be terrible if I had to stain the first years of my reign with the blood of my subjects. Everyone who means well by me will do his outmost to avert such a catastrophe. I intend to be le roi des gueux! (the King of the Mob!) My subjects shall know that their King is concerned for their welfare."[10]The next day, after realising his blunder, Bismarck attempted to reach a compromise with Wilhelm by agreeing to his social policy towards industrial workers and even suggested a European council to discuss working conditions, presided over by the German Emperor.Wilhelm II, German EmperorDespite this, a turn of events eventually led to his distance from Wilhelm. Bismarck, feeling pressured and unappreciated by the Emperor and undermined by ambitious advisors, refused to sign a proclamation regarding the protection of workers along with Wilhelm, as was required by the German Constitution, to protest Wilhelm's ever-increasing interference with Bismarck's previously unquestioned authority. Bismarck also worked behind the scenes to break the council that Wilhelm held so dear. The final break came as Bismarck searched for a new parliamentary majority, with his Kartell voted from power due to the anti-Socialist bill fiasco. The remaining powers in the Reichstag were the Catholic Centre Party and the Conservative Party. Bismarck wished to form a new bloc with the Centre Party, and invited Ludwig Windthorst, the party's parliamentary leader, to discuss a coalition.Wilhelm was furious to hear about Windthorst's visit. In a parliamentary state, the head of government depends on the confidence of the parliamentary majority and has the right to form coalitions to ensure his policies a majority, but in Germany, the Chancellor had to depend on the confidence of the Emperor, and Wilhelm believed that the Emperor had the right to be informed before his ministers' meeting. After a heated argument at Bismarck's estate over Imperial authority, Wilhelm stormed out. Bismarck, forced for the first time into a situation he could not use to his advantage, wrote a blistering letter of resignation, decrying Wilhelm's interference in foreign and domestic policy, which was published only after Bismarck's death. When Bismarck realised that his dismissal was imminent:All Bismarck's resources were deployed; he even asked Empress Victoria to use her influence at her son on his behalf. But the wizard had lost his magic; his spells were powerless because they were exerted on people who did not respect them, and he who had so signally disregardedKant's command to use people as ends in themselves had too small a stock of loyalty to draw on. As Lord Salisbury told Queen Victoria: 'The very qualities which Bismarck fostered in the Emperor in order to strengthen himself when the Emperor Frederick should come to the throne have been the qualities by which he has been overthrown.' The Empress, with what must have been a mixture of pity and triumph, told him that her influence with her son could not save him for he himself had destroyed it.[11]Although Bismarck had sponsored landmark social security legislation, by 1889–90, he had become disillusioned with the attitude of workers. In particular, he was opposed to wage increases, improving working conditions, and regulating labour relations. Moreover the Kartell, the shifting political coalition that Bismarck had been able to forge since 1867, had lost a working majority in the Reichstag. Bismarck also attempted to sabotage the council that the Kaiser was organising. In March 1890, the dismissal of Bismarck coincided with the Kaiser's opening of the Labour Conference in Berlin.[12][13] Subsequently, at the opening of the Reichstag on 6 May 1890, the Kaiser stated that the most pressing issue was the further enlargement of the bill concerning the protection of the labourer.[14] In 1891, the Reichstag passed the Workers Protection Acts, which improved working conditions, protected women and children and regulated labour relations.
Wilhelm in control
Dismissal of Bismarck
Bismarck resigned at Wilhelm II's insistence in 1890, at the age of 75, to be succeeded as Chancellor of Germany and Minister-President of Prussia by Leo von Caprivi, who in turn was replaced by Chlodwig, Prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, in 1894. Following the dismissal of Hohenlohe in 1900, Wilhelm appointed the man whom he regarded as "his own Bismarck",Bernhard von Bülow.In foreign policy Bismarck had achieved a fragile balance of interests between Germany, France and Russia—peace was at hand and Bismarck tried to keep it that way despite growing popular sentiment against Britain (regarding colonies) and especially against Russia. With Bismarck's dismissal the Russians now expected a reversal of policy in Berlin, so they quickly came to terms with France, beginning the process that by 1914 largely isolated Germany.[15]Monarchical styles ofGerman Emperor Wilhelm II, King of PrussiaReference styleHis Imperial and Royal MajestySpoken styleYour Imperial and Royal MajestyAlternative styleSireIn appointing Caprivi and then Hohenlohe, Wilhelm was embarking upon what is known to history as "the New Course", in which he hoped to exert decisive influence in the government of the empire. There is debate amongst historians as to the precise degree to which Wilhelm succeeded in implementing "personal rule" in this era, but what is clear is the very different dynamic which existed between the Crown and its chief political servant (the Chancellor) in the "Wilhelmine Era". These chancellors were senior civil servants and not seasoned politician-statesmen like Bismarck. Wilhelm wanted to preclude the emergence of another Iron Chancellor, whom he ultimately detested as being "a boorish old killjoy" who had not permitted any minister to see the Emperor except in his presence, keeping a stranglehold on effective political power. Upon his enforced retirement and until his dying day, Bismarck was to become a bitter critic of Wilhelm's policies, but without the support of the supreme arbiter of all political appointments (the Emperor) there was little chance of Bismarck exerting a decisive influence on policy.Silver 5-mark coin of Wilhelm II.Something which Bismarck was able to effect was the creation of the "Bismarck myth". This was a view—which some would argue was confirmed by subsequent events—that, with the dismissal of the Iron Chancellor, Wilhelm II effectively destroyed any chance Germany had of stable and effective government. In this view, Wilhelm's "New Course" was characterised far more as the German ship of state going out of control, eventually leading through a series of crises to the carnage of the First and Second World Wars.In the early twentieth century Wilhelm began to concentrate upon his real agenda; the creation of a German navy that would rival that of Britain and enable Germany to declare itself a world power. He ordered his military leaders to read Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan's book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, and spent hours drawing sketches of the ships that he wanted built. Bülow and Bethmann Hollweg, his loyal chancellors, looked after domestic affairs, while Wilhelm began to spread alarm in the chancellories of Europe with his increasingly eccentric views on foreign affairs.
Promoter of arts and sciences
Wilhelm enthusiastically promoted the arts and sciences, as well as public education and social welfare. He sponsored the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the promotion of scientific research; it was funded by wealthy private donors and by the state and comprised a number of research institutes in both pure and applied sciences. The Prussian Academy of Sciences was unable to avoid the Kaiser's pressure and lost some of its autonomy when it was forced to incorporate new programs in engineering, and award new fellowships in engineering sciences as a result of a gift from the Kaiser in 1900.[16]Wilhelm supported the modernisers as they tried to reform the Prussian system of secondary education, which was rigidly traditional, elitist, politically authoritarian, and unchanged by the progress in the natural sciences. As hereditary Protector of the Order of Saint John, he offered encouragement to the Christian order's attempts to place German medicine at the forefront of modern medical practice through its system of hospitals, nursing sisterhood and nursing schools, and nursing homes throughout the German Empire. Wilhelm continued as Protector of the Order even after 1918, as the position was in essence attached to the head of the House of Hohenzollern.[17][18]
Personality
Historians have frequently stressed the role of Wilhelm's personality in shaping his reign. Thus,Thomas Nipperdey concludes he was:...gifted, with a quick understanding, sometimes brilliant, with a taste for the modern,—technology, industry, science—but at the same time superficial, hasty, restless, unable to relax, without any deeper level of seriousness, without any desire for hard work or drive to see things through to the end, without any sense of sobriety, for balance and boundaries, or even for reality and real problems, uncontrollable and scarcely capable of learning from experience, desperate for applause and success,—as Bismarck said early on in his life, he wanted every day to be his birthday—romantic, sentimental and theatrical, unsure and arrogant, with an immeasurably exaggerated self-confidence and desire to show off, a juvenile cadet, who never took the tone of the officers' mess out of his voice, and brashly wanted to play the part of the supreme warlord, full of panicky fear of a monotonous life without any diversions, and yet aimless, pathological in his hatred against his English mother."[19]Historian David Fromkin states that Wilhelm had a love-hate relationship with Britain.[20]According to Fromkin:From the outset, the half-German side of him was at war with the half-English side. He was wildly jealous of the British, wanting to be British, wanting to be better at being British than the British were, while at the same time hating them and resenting them because he never could be fully accepted by them.[21]Langer et al. (1968) emphasize the negative international consequences of Wilhelm's erratic personality:He believed in force, and the 'survival of the fittest' in domestic as well as foreign politics... William was not lacking in intelligence, but he did lack stability, disguising his deep insecurities by swagger and tough talk. He frequently fell into depressions and hysterics... William's personal instability was reflected in vacillations of policy. His actions, at home as well as abroad, lacked guidance, and therefore often bewildered or infuriated public opinion. He was not so much concerned with gaining specific objectives, as had been the case with Bismarck, as with asserting his will. This trait in the ruler of the leading Continental power was one of the main causes of the uneasiness prevailing in Europe at the turn-of-the-century.[22]
Relationships with foreign relatives
As a grandchild of Queen Victoria, Wilhelm was a first cousin of the British Empire's King George V, as well as of Queens Marie of Romania, Maud of Norway, and Victoria Eugenie of Spain, and of the Empress Alexandra of Russia. In 1889, Wilhelm's younger sister, Sophia, married the futureKing Constantine I of Greece. Wilhelm, infuriated by his sister's conversion to Greek Orthodoxyupon her marriage, attempted to ban her from entering Germany.Photograph taken at the funeral of King Edward VII in 1910: seated, left to right, kingsAlfonso XIII of Spain, George V of the United Kingdom &Frederik VIII of Denmark; standing, left to right: kingsHaakon VII of Norway,Ferdinand of Bulgaria, Manuel II of Portugal, George I of Greeceand Albert I of Belgium. Kaiser Wilhelm is seen at center, standing behind King George V.Wilhelm's most contentious relationships were with his British relations. He craved the acceptance of his grandmother, Queen Victoria, and of the rest of her family.[23] Despite the fact that his grandmother treated him with courtesy and tact, his other relatives found him arrogant and obnoxious, and they largely denied him acceptance.[24] He had an especially bad relationship with his Uncle Bertie, the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. Between 1888 and 1901, Wilhelm resented his Uncle, a mere heir to the throne, treating him not as emperor of Germany, but merely as another nephew.[25] In turn, Wilhelm often snubbed his uncle, whom he referred to as "the old peacock" and lorded his position as emperor over him.[26] Beginning in the 1890s, Wilhelm made visits to England for Cowes Week on the Isle of Wight and often competed against his uncle in the yacht races. Edward's wife, the Danish-born Alexandra, first as Princess of Wales and later as Queen, also disliked Wilhelm, never forgetting the Prussian seizure of Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark in the 1860s, as well as being annoyed over Wilhelm's treatment of his mother.[27]Despite his poor relations with his English relatives, nevertheless, when he received news that Queen Victoria was dying at Osborne House in January 1901, Wilhelm traveled to England and was at her bedside when she died and remained for the funeral. He also was present at the funeral of King Edward VII in 1910.In 1913, Wilhelm hosted a lavish wedding for his only daughter, Victoria Louise, in Berlin. Among the guests at the wedding were Tsar Nicholas II, who also disliked Wilhelm, as did his English cousin, King George V and his wife, Queen Mary.
Antisemitism
Wilhelm's biographer Lamar Cecil identified Wilhelm's "curious but well-developed anti-Semitism", noting that in 1888 a friend of Wilhelm "declared that the young Kaiser's dislike of his Hebrew subjects, one rooted in a perception that they possessed an overweening influence in Germany, was so strong that it could not be overcome." Cecil concludes:"Wilhelm never changed, and throughout his life he believed that Jews were perversely responsible, largely through their prominence in the Berlin press and in leftist political movements, for encouraging opposition to his rule. For individual Jews, ranging from rich businessmen and major art collectors to purveyors of elegant goods in Berlin stores, he had considerable esteem, but he prevented Jewish citizens from having careers in the army and the diplomatic corps and frequently used abusive language against them."[28]On 2 December 1919, Wilhelm wrote to Field Marshal August von Mackensen, denouncing his own abdication as the "deepest, most disgusting shame ever perpetrated by a person in history, the Germans have done to themselves... egged on and misled by the tribe of Judah ... Let no German ever forget this, nor rest until these parasites have been destroyed and exterminated from German soil!"[29] Wilhelm advocated a "regular international all-worlds pogrom à la Russe" as "the best cure" and further believed that Jews were a "nuisance that humanity must get rid of some way or other. I believe the best thing would be gas!"[30]
Foreign affairs
1898 China imperialism cartoon: A Mandarin officialhelplessly looks on as China, depicted as a pie, is about to be carved up by Queen Victoria(Britain), Wilhelm II (Germany),Nicolas II (Russia), Marianne(France), and a samurai(Japan).A 1904 German cartoon commenting on the Entente cordiale: John Bull walking off with Marianne, turning his back on Wilhelm II.Wilhelm II with Nicholas II of Russia in 1905, wearing the military uniforms of each other's nationsGerman foreign policy under Wilhelm II was faced with a number of significant problems. Perhaps the most apparent was that Wilhelm was an impatient man, subjective in his reactions and affected strongly by sentiment and impulse. He was personally ill-equipped to steer German foreign policy along a rational course. It is now widely recognised that the various spectacular acts which Wilhelm undertook in the international sphere were often partially encouraged by the German foreign policy elite. There were a number of notorious examples, such as the Kruger telegram of 1896 in which Wilhelm congratulated President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal Republic on the suppression of the British Jameson Raid, thus alienating British public opinion.Wilhelm invented and spread fears of a yellow peril trying to interest other European rulers in the perils they faced by invading Chinese; few other leaders paid attention.[31] Under Wilhelm Germany invested in strengthening its colonies in Africa and the Pacific, but few became profitable and all were lost during the First World War. In South West Africa (now Namibia), a native revolt against German rule led to the Herero and Namaqua Genocide, although Wilhelm eventually ordered it to be stopped.One of the few times when Wilhelm succeeded in personal diplomacy was when in 1900 he supported the marriage of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria to Sophie Chotek, against the wishes of Emperor Franz Joseph.[32]A domestic triumph for Wilhelm was when his daughter Victoria Louise married the Duke of Brunswick in 1913; this helped heal the rift between the House of Hanover and the House of Hohenzollern which followed the annexation of Hanover by Prussia in 1866.[33]
Hun speech of 1900
The Boxer rebellion, an anti-western uprising in China, was put down in 1900 by an international force of British, French, Russian, American, Japanese, and German troops. The Germans, however, forfeited any prestige they might have gained for their participation by arriving only after the British and Japanese forces had taken Peking, the site of the fiercest fighting. Moreover, the poor impression left by the German troops' late arrival was made worse by the Kaiser's ill-conceived farewell address, in which he commanded them, in the spirit of the Huns, to be merciless in battle.[34] Wilhelm delivered this speech in Bremerhaven on 27 July 1900, addressing German troops who were departing to suppress the Boxer rebellion in China. The speech was infused with Wilhelm's fiery and chauvinistic rhetoric and clearly expressed his vision of German imperial power. There were two versions of the speech. The Foreign Office issued an edited version, making sure to omit one particularly incendiary paragraph that they regarded as diplomatically embarrassing.[35] The edited version read like this:Great overseas tasks have fallen to the new German Empire, tasks far greater than many of my countrymen expected. The German Empire has, by its very character, the obligation to assist its citizens if they are being set upon in foreign lands. The tasks that the old Roman Empire of the German nation was unable to accomplish, the new German Empire is in a position to fulfill. The means that make this possible is our army.It has been built up during thirty years of faithful, peaceful labor, following the principles of my blessed grandfather. You, too, have received your training in accordance with these principles, and by putting them to the test before the enemy, you should see whether they have proved their worth in you. Your comrades in the navy have already passed this test; they have shown that the principles of your training are sound, and I am also proud of the praise that your comrades have earned over there from foreign leaders. It is up to you to emulate them.A great task awaits you: you are to revenge the grievous injustice that has been done. The Chinese have overturned the law of nations; they have mocked the sacredness of the envoy, the duties of hospitality in a way unheard of in world history. It is all the more outrageous that this crime has been committed by a nation that takes pride in its ancient culture. Show the old Prussian virtue. Present yourselves as Christians in the cheerful endurance of suffering. May honor and glory follow your banners and arms. Give the whole world an example of manliness and discipline.You know full well that you are to fight against a cunning, brave, well-armed, and cruel enemy. When you encounter him, know this: no quarter will be given. Prisoners will not be taken. Exercise your arms such that for a thousand years no Chinese will dare to look cross-eyed at a German. Maintain discipline. May God’s blessing be with you, the prayers of an entire nation and my good wishes go with you, each and every one. Open the way to civilization once and for all! Now you may depart! Farewell, comrades![35][36]The official version omitted the following passage from which the speech derives its name:Should you encounter the enemy, he will be defeated! No quarter will be given! Prisoners will not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands is forfeited. Just as a thousand years ago the Hunsunder their King Attila made a name for themselves, one that even today makes them seem mighty in history and legend, may the name German be affirmed by you in such a way in China that no Chinese will ever again dare to look cross-eyed at a German.[35][37]The term "Hun" later became the favored epithet of Allied anti-German war propaganda during the First World War.[34]
Moroccan Crisis
One of Wilhelm's diplomatic blunders sparked the Moroccan Crisis of 1905, when he made a spectacular visit to Tangier, in Morocco. His presence was seen as an assertion of German interests in Morocco, in opposition to those of France. In his speech, he even made remarks in favour of Moroccan independence, and this led to friction with France, which had expanding colonial interests in Morocco, and to the Algeciras Conference, which served largely to further isolate Germany in Europe.[38]
Daily Telegraph affair
Perhaps Wilhelm's most damaging personal blunder cost him much of his prestige and power and had a far greater impact in Germany than overseas. The Daily Telegraph Affair of 1908 involved the publication in Germany of an interview with a British daily newspaper that included wild statements and diplomatically damaging remarks. Wilhelm had seen the interview as an opportunity to promote his views and ideas on Anglo-German friendship, but his emotional outbursts during the course of it ended up further alienating not only the British, but also the French, Russians, and Japanese. He implied, among other things, that the Germans cared nothing for the British; that the French and Russians had attempted to incite Germany to intervene in the Second Boer War; and that the German naval buildup was targeted against the Japanese, not Britain. One memorable quotation from the interview was "You English are mad, mad, mad as March hares."[39] The effect in Germany was quite significant, with serious calls for his abdication. Wilhelm kept a very low profile for many months after the Daily Telegraph fiasco, but later exacted his revenge by forcing the resignation of the chancellor, Prince Bülow, who had abandoned the Emperor to public scorn by not having the transcript edited before its German publication. [40][41] The Daily Telegraph crisis deeply wounded Wilhelm's previously unimpaired self-confidence, and he soon suffered a severe bout of depression from which he never fully recovered. He lost much of the influence he had previously exercised in domestic and foreign policy.[42]British public opinion had been quite favourable toward the Kaiser in his first twelve years on the throne, but it turned sour in the late 1890s. During the War of 1914 to 1918, however, he became the central target of British anti-German propaganda and the personification of a hated enemy.[43]
Naval expansion
Caricature by Olaf Gulbransson 1909: "Manoeuvre: Emperor William II explains the enemy's positions to Prince Ludwig of Bavaria"Nothing Wilhelm did in the international arena was of more influence than his decision to pursue a policy of massive naval construction. A powerful navy was Wilhelm's pet project. He had inherited from his mother a love of the British Royal Navy, which was at that time the world's largest. He once confided to his uncle, the Prince of Wales, that his dream was to have a "fleet of my own some day". Wilhelm's frustration over his fleet's poor showing at the Fleet Review at his grandmother Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations, combined with his inability to exert German influence in South Africa following the dispatch of the Kruger telegram, led to Wilhelm taking definitive steps toward the construction of a fleet to rival that of his British cousins. Wilhelm was fortunate to be able to call on the services of the dynamic naval officer Alfred von Tirpitz, whom he appointed to the head of the Imperial Naval Office in 1897.The new admiral had conceived of what came to be known as the "Risk Theory" or the Tirpitz Plan, by which Germany could force Britain to accede to German demands in the international arena through the threat posed by a powerful battlefleet concentrated in the North Sea. Tirpitz enjoyed Wilhelm's full support in his advocacy of successive naval bills of 1897 and 1900, by which the German navy was built up to contend with that of the British Empire. Naval expansion under the Fleet Acts eventually led to severe financial strains in Germany by 1914, as by 1906 Wilhelm had committed his navy to construction of the much larger, more expensivedreadnought type of battleship.In 1889 Wilhelm reorganised top level control of the navy by creating a Naval Cabinet (Marine-Kabinett) equivalent to the German Imperial Military Cabinet which had previously functioned in the same capacity for both the army and navy. The Head of the Naval Cabinet was responsible for promotions, appointments, administration, and issuing orders to naval forces. Captain Gustav von Senden-Bibran was appointed as the first head and remained so until 1906. The existing Imperial admiralty was abolished, and its responsibilities divided between two organisations. A new position was created, equivalent to the supreme commander of the army: the Chief of the High Command of the Admiralty, or Oberkommando der Marine, was responsible for ship deployments, strategy and tactics. Vice-Admiral Max von der Goltz was appointed in 1889 and remained in post until 1895. Construction and maintenance of ships and obtaining supplies was the responsibility of the State Secretary of the Imperial Navy Office (Reichsmarineamt), responsible to the Imperial Chancellor and advising the Reichstag on naval matters. The first appointee was Rear Admiral Karl Eduard Heusner, followed shortly by Rear Admiral Friedrich von Hollmann from 1890 to 1897. Each of these three heads of department reported separately to Wilhelm.[44]In addition to the expansion of the fleet the Kiel Canal was opened in 1895 enabling faster movements between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.
First World War
Emperor Wilhelm with the Grand Duke of Baden, Prince Oskar of Prussia, the Grand Duke of Hesse, the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Prince Louis of Bavaria, Prince Max of Baden and his son, Crown Prince Wilhelm, at pre-war military maneuvers in autumn 1909A composite image of Wilhelm II with German generals
The Sarajevo crisis
Wilhelm was a friend of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, and he was deeply shocked by his assassination on 28 June 1914. Wilhelm offered to support Austria-Hungary in crushing theBlack Hand, the secret organization that had plotted the killing, and even sanctioned the use of force by Austria against the perceived source of the movement—Serbia (this is often called "the blank cheque"). He wanted to remain in Berlin until the crisis was resolved, but his courtiers persuaded him instead to go on his annual cruise of the North Sea on 6 July 1914. Wilhelm made erratic attempts to stay on top of the crisis via telegram, and when the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was delivered to Serbia, he hurried back to Berlin. He reached Berlin on 28 July, read a copy of the Serbian reply, and wrote on it:A brilliant solution—and in barely 48 hours! This is more than could have been expected. A great moral victory for Vienna; but with it every pretext for war falls to the ground, and [the Ambassador] Giesl had better have stayed quietly at Belgrade. On this document, I should never have given orders for mobilisation.[45]Unknown to the Emperor, Austro-Hungarian ministers and generals had already convinced the 84-year-old Franz Joseph I of Austria to sign a declaration of war against Serbia. As a direct consequence, Russia began a general mobilization to attack Austria in defense of Serbia.
July 1914
Main article: July CrisisEmperor Wilhelm in conversation with the victor ofLiège, General Otto von Emmich; in the background the generals Hans von Plessen(middle) and Moriz von Lyncker(right).An das deutsche VolkExtract from Wilhelm's public address for mobilization, 6 August 1914.Problems playing this file? See media help.On the night of 30 July, when handed a document stating that Russia would not cancel its mobilization, Wilhelm wrote a lengthy commentary containing these observations:...For I no longer have any doubt that England, Russia and France have agreed among themselves—knowing that our treaty obligations compel us to support Austria—to use the Austro-Serb conflict as a pretext for waging a war of annihilation against us... Our dilemma over keeping faith with the old and honourable Emperor has been exploited to create a situation which gives England the excuse she has been seeking to annihilate us with a spurious appearance of justice on the pretext that she is helping France and maintaining the well-known Balance of Power in Europe, i.e., playing off all European States for her own benefit against us.[46]More recent British authors state that Wilhelm II really declared, "Ruthlessness and weakness will start the most terrifying war of the world, whose purpose is to destroy Germany. Because there can no longer be any doubts, England, France and Russia have conspired them selves together to fight an annihilation war against us".[47]When it became clear that Germany would experience a war on two fronts and that the United Kingdom would enter the war if Germany attacked France through neutral Belgium, the panic-stricken Wilhelm attempted to redirect the main attack against Russia. When Helmuth von Moltke (the younger) (who had chosen the old plan from 1905, made by the former German general von Schlieffen for the possibility of German war on two fronts) told him that this was impossible, Wilhelm said: "Your uncle would have given me a different answer!"[48] Wilhelm is also reported to have said, "To think that George and Nicky should have played me false! If my grandmother had been alive, she would never have allowed it."[49] In the original Schlieffen plan, Germany would attack the (supposed) weaker enemy first, meaning France. The plan supposed that it would take a long time before Russia was ready for war. Defeating France had been easy for Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. At the 1914 border between France and Germany, an attack at this more southern part of France could be stopped by the French fortress along the border. However, Wilhelm II got von Moltke (the younger) to not also invade the Netherlands.Italian poster from 1915 showing Wilhelm II biting into the world. The text reads "The glutton – too hard."
Shadow-Kaiser
Hindenburg, Wilhelm II, andLudendorff in January 1917Wilhelm's role in wartime was of ever-decreasing power as he increasingly handled awards ceremonies and honorific duties. The high command continued with its strategy even when it was clear that the Schlieffen plan had failed. By 1916 the Empire had effectively become a military dictatorship under the control of Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff.[50] Increasingly cut off from reality and the political decision-making process, Wilhelm vacillated between defeatism and dreams of victory, depending upon the fortunes of his armies. Nevertheless, Wilhelm still retained the ultimate authority in matters of political appointment, and it was only after his consent had been gained that major changes to the high command could be effected. Wilhelm was in favour of the dismissal of Helmuth von Moltke the Younger in September 1914 and his replacement by Erich von Falkenhayn. In 1917, Hindenburg and Ludendorff decided that Bethman-Hollweg was no longer acceptable to them as Chancellor and called upon the Kaiser to appoint somebody else. When asked whom they would accept, Ludendorff recommended Georg Michaelis, a nonentity he barely knew. The Kaiser did not know Michaelis, but accepted the suggestion. Upon hearing in July 1917 that his cousin George V had changed the name of the British royal house to Windsor,[51] Wilhelm remarked that he planned to see Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.[52] The Kaiser's support collapsed completely in October–November 1918 in the army, in the civilian government, and in German public opinion, as President Woodrow Wilson made clear the Kaiser could no longer be a party to peace negotiations.[53][54] That year also saw Wilhelm sickened during the worldwide1918 flu pandemic, though he survived.[55]
Abdication and flight
Wilhelm was at the Imperial Army headquarters in Spa, Belgium, when the uprisings in Berlin and other centres took him by surprise in late 1918. Mutiny among the ranks of his belovedKaiserliche Marine, the imperial navy, profoundly shocked him. After the outbreak of the German Revolution, Wilhelm could not make up his mind whether or not to abdicate. Up to that point, he accepted that he would likely have to give up the imperial crown, but still hoped to retain the Prussian kingship. The unreality of this belief was revealed when, in the hope of preserving the monarchy in the face of growing revolutionary unrest, Chancellor Prince Max of Badenannounced Wilhelm's abdication of both titles on 9 November 1918. Prince Max himself was forced to resign later the same day, when it became clear that only Friedrich Ebert, leader of theSPD, could effectively exert control.Wilhelm consented to the abdication only after Ludendorff's replacement, General Wilhelm Groener, had informed him that the officers and men of the army would march back in good order under Paul von Hindenburg's command, but would certainly not fight for Wilhelm's throne on the home front. The monarchy's last and strongest support had been broken, and finally even Hindenburg, himself a lifelong royalist, was obliged, with some embarrassment, to advise the Emperor to give up the crown.[56]A memorial to German soldiers killed in the First World WarThe fact that the High Command might one day abandon the Kaiser had been foreseen in December 1897, when Wilhelm had visited Otto von Bismarck for the last time. Bismarck had again warned the Kaiser about the increasing influence of militarists, especially of the admirals who were pushing for the construction of a battle fleet. Bismarck's last warning had been:Your Majesty, so long as you have this present officer corps, you can do as you please. But when this is no longer the case, it will be very different for you.[57]Subsequently, Bismarck had predicted accurately:"Jena came twenty years after the death of Frederick the Great; the crash will come twenty years after my departure if things go on like this" ― a prophecy fulfilled almost to the month.[58]On 10 November, Wilhelm—now Wilhelm Hohenzollern, private citizen—crossed the border by train and went into exile in the Netherlands, which had remained neutral throughout the war.[59]Upon the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles in early 1919, Article 227 expressly provided for the prosecution of Wilhelm "for a supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties", but Queen Wilhelmina refused to extradite him, despite appeals from the Allies. King George V wrote that he looked on his cousin as "the greatest criminal in history", but opposed Prime Minister David Lloyd George's proposal to "hang the Kaiser". President Woodrow Wilson of the United States rejected extradition, arguing that punishing Wilhelm for waging war would destabilize international order and lose the peace.[60]Wilhelm first settled in Amerongen, where on 28 November he issued a formal statement of abdication and released his soldiers and officials from their oath of loyalty to him, thus formally ending the Hohenzollerns' 400-year rule over Prussia. He subsequently purchased a country house in the municipality of Doorn, known as Huis Doorn, on 16 August 1919 and moved in on 15 May 1920.[61] This was to be his home for the remainder of his life. Although he had abdicated, he never formally relinquished his titles, and hoped to return to Germany in the future. The Weimar Republic allowed Wilhelm to remove twenty-three railway wagons of furniture, twenty-seven containing packages of all sorts, one bearing a car and another a boat, from the New Palace at Potsdam.[62]
Life in exile
In 1922, Wilhelm published the first volume of his memoirs[63]—a very slim volume that insisted he was not guilty of initiating the Great War, and defended his conduct throughout his reign, especially in matters of foreign policy. For the remaining twenty years of his life, he entertained guests (often of some standing) and kept himself updated on events in Europe. He grew a beard and allowed his famous moustache to droop. He also learned the Dutch language. Wilhelm developed a penchant for archaeology while residing at the Corfu Achilleion, excavating at the site of the Temple of Artemis in Corfu, a passion he retained in his exile. He had bought the former Greek residence of Empress Elisabeth after her murder in 1898. He also sketched plans for grand buildings and battleships when he was bored. In exile, one of Wilhelm's greatest passions was hunting, and he bagged thousands of animals, both beast and bird. Much of his time was spent chopping wood and thousands of trees were chopped down during his stay at Doorn.[64]In the early 1930s, Wilhelm apparently hoped that the successes of the German Nazi Party would stimulate interest in a restoration of the monarchy, with his eldest grandson as the fourth Kaiser. His second wife, Hermine, actively petitioned the Nazi government on her husband's behalf. However, Adolf Hitler, himself a veteran of the First World War, like other leading Nazis, felt nothing but scorn for the man they blamed for Germany's greatest defeat, and the petitions were ignored. Though he played host to Hermann Göring at Doorn on at least one occasion, Wilhelm grew to mistrust Hitler. Hearing of the murder of the wife of former Chancellor Schleicher, he said "We have ceased to live under the rule of law and everyone must be prepared for the possibility that the Nazis will push their way in and put them up against the wall!"[65] Wilhelm was also appalled at the Kristallnacht of 9–10 November 1938, saying "I have just made my views clear toAuwi [Wilhelm's fourth son] in the presence of his brothers. He had the nerve to say that he agreed with the Jewish pogroms and understood why they had come about. When I told him that any decent man would describe these actions as gangsterisms, he appeared totally indifferent. He is completely lost to our family".[66] He also stated, "For the first time, I am ashamed to be a German."[67]In the wake of the German victory over Poland in September 1939, Wilhelm's adjutant, General von Dommes, wrote on his behalf to Hitler, stating that the House of Hohenzollern "remained loyal" and noted that nine Prussian Princes (one son and eight grandchildren) were stationed at the front, concluding "because of the special circumstances that require residence in a neutral foreign country, His Majesty must personally decline to make the aforementioned comment. The Emperor has therefore charged me with making a communication."[68] Wilhelm greatly admired the success which Hitler was able to achieve in the opening months of the Second World War, and personally sent a congratulatory telegram on the fall of Paris stating "Congratulations, you have won using my troops." In a letter to his daughter Victoria Louise, Duchess of Brunswick, he wrote triumphantly, "Thus is the pernicious Entente Cordiale of Uncle Edward VII brought to nought."[69] Nevertheless, after the Nazi conquest of the Netherlands in 1940, the aging Wilhelm retired completely from public life. In May 1940, when Hitler invaded the Netherlands, Wilhelm declined an offer from Churchill of asylum in Britain, preferring to die at Huis Doorn.[70]During his last year at Doorn, Wilhelm believed that Germany was the land of monarchy and therefore of Christ, and that England was the land of liberalism and therefore of Satan and theAnti-Christ. He argued that the English ruling classes were "Freemasons thoroughly infected by Juda". Wilhelm asserted that the "British people must be liberated from Antichrist Juda. We must drive Juda out of England just as he has been chased out of the Continent."[71][clarification needed]He believed the Freemasons and Jews had caused the two world wars, aiming at a world Jewish empire with British and American gold, but that "Juda's plan has been smashed to pieces and they themselves swept out of the European Continent!" Continental Europe was now, Wilhelm wrote, "consolidating and closing itself off from British influences after the elimination of the British and the Jews!" The end result would be a "U.S. of Europe!"[71] In a letter of 1940 to his sister Princess Margaret, Wilhelm wrote: "The hand of God is creating a new world & working miracles... We are becoming the U.S. of Europe under German leadership, a united European Continent." He added: "The Jews [are] being thrust out of their nefarious positions in all countries, whom they have driven to hostility for centuries."[68] Also in 1940 came what would have been his mother's 100th birthday, on which he wrote ironically to a friend "Today the 100th birthday of my mother! No notice is taken of it at home! No 'Memorial Service' or... committee to remember her marvellous work for the... welfare of our German people... Nobody of the new generation knows anything about her."[72] This sympathy for his mother is in sharp contrast to the intense animosity he expressed for her during most of her life.[citation needed]The Huis Doorn in 1925 Wilhelm in 1933 Huis Doorn in the Netherlands
Death
Wilhelm II's tomb in Doorn, NetherlandsWilhelm died of a pulmonary embolus in Doorn, Netherlands, on 3 June 1941, aged 82, just weeks before the German invasion of the Soviet Union. German soldiers had been guarding his house. Hitler, however, was reported to be angry that the former monarch had an honor guard of German troops and nearly fired the general who ordered them when he found out. Despite his personal animosity toward Wilhelm, Hitler wanted to bring his body back to Berlin for a state funeral, as Wilhelm was a symbol of Germany and Germans during the previous World War. Hitler felt that such a funeral would demonstrate to the Germans the direct descent of the Third Reich from the old German Empire.[73] However, Wilhelm's wishes never to return to Germany until the restoration of the monarchy were respected, and the Nazi occupation authorities granted him a small military funeral, with a few hundred people present. The mourners included August von Mackensen, fully dressed in his old imperial Life Hussars uniform, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, andReichskommissar for the Netherlands Arthur Seyss-Inquart, along with a few other military advisers. However, Wilhelm's request that the swastika and other Nazi regalia be not displayed at his funeral was ignored, and they are featured in the photographs of the event taken by a Dutch photographer.[74]Wilhelm was buried in a mausoleum in the grounds of Huis Doorn, which has since become a place of pilgrimage for German monarchists. Small but enthusiastic and faithful numbers of them gather there every year on the anniversary of his death to pay their homage to the last German Emperor.[75]
Historiography
Three trends have characterized the writing about Wilhelm. First, the court-inspired writers considered him a martyr and a hero, often uncritically accepting the justifications provided in the Kaiser's own memoirs. Second, there came those who judged Wilhelm to be completely unable to handle the great responsibilities of his position, a ruler too reckless to deal with power. Third, after 1950, later scholars have sought to transcend the passions of the early 20th century and attempted an objective portrayal of Wilhelm and his rule.[76]On 8 June 1913, a year before the Great War began, The New York Times published a special supplement devoted to the 25th anniversary of the Kaiser's coronation. The banner headline read: "Kaiser, 25 Years a Ruler, Hailed as Chief Peacemaker". The accompanying story called him "the greatest factor for peace that our time can show", and credited Wilhelm with frequently rescuing Europe from the brink of war.[77] Until the late 1950s, the Kaiser was depicted by most historians as a man of considerable influence. Partly that was a deception by German officials. For example, President Theodore Roosevelt believed the Kaiser was in control of German foreign policy because Hermann Speck von Sternburg, the German ambassador in Washington and a personal friend of Roosevelt, presented the messages to the president of Chancellor von Bülowas messages from the Kaiser. Later historians downplayed his role, arguing that senior officials learned to work around him. More recently historian John C. G. Röhl has portrayed Wilhelm as the key figure in understanding the recklessness and downfall of Imperial Germany.[78] Thus, the argument is made that the Kaiser played a major role in promoting the policies of naval and colonial expansion that caused the sharp deterioration in Germany's relations with Britain before 1914.[79][80]
First marriage and issue
Wilhelm and his first wife Augusta ViktoriaWilhelm and his first wife, Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, were married on 27 February 1881. They had seven children:NameBirthDeathSpouseChildrenCrown Prince Wilhelm6 May 188220 July 1951Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrince Wilhelm (1906–1940)Prince Louis Ferdinand(1907–1994)Prince Hubertus (1909–1950)Prince Frederick (1911–1966)Princess Alexandrine (1915–1980)Princess Cecilie (1917–1975)Crown Prince Wilhelm (1882–1951). On 6 June 1905, he married Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (20 September 1886 – 6 May 1954) in Berlin. Cecilie was the daughter ofFrederick Francis III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1851–1897) and Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia (1860–1922). They had six children. Their eldest son Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1906–1940) was killed in World War II.Prince Eitel Friedrich (1883–1942). On 27 February 1906, he married Duchess Sophia Charlotte of Oldenburg (2 February 1879 Oldenburg, Germany – 29 March 1964 Westerstede, Germany) in Berlin, Germany. They were divorced 20 October 1926 and had no children.Prince Adalbert (1884–1948). On 3 August 1914, he married Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (16 August 1891 – 25 April 1971) in Wilhelmshaven, Germany. They had three children.Prince August Wilhelm (1887–1949). On 22 October 1908, he married Princess Alexandra Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (21 April 1887 Germany – 15 April 1957 France). They had one child.Prince Oskar (1888–1958). On 31 July 1914, he married Countess Ina Marie von Bassewitz (27 January 1888 – 17 September 1973). It was a morganatic marriage, so Ina-Marie was created Countess von Ruppin. In 1920, she and her children were granted the title Prince/ss of Prussiawith the style Royal Highness. They had four children. His eldest son Prince Oskar Wilhelm Karl Hans Kuno of Prussia was killed in 1939 in World War II.Prince Joachim (1890–1920). On 11 March 1916, he married Princess Marie-Auguste of Anhalt (10 June 1898 – 22 May 1983). They had one son. Joachim committed suicide, unable to accept his lot after the abdication of his father, the failure of his own marriage, and the severe depression he felt after service in the Great War. His great grandson Grand Duke George Mikhailovich of Russia, Prince of Prussia (born 1981) is a pretender to the Russian throne.Princess Viktoria Luise (1892–1980). In 1913, she married Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick (1887–1953). They had five children.Empress Augusta, known affectionately as "Dona", was a constant companion to Wilhelm, and her death on 11 April 1921 was a devastating blow. It also came less than a year after their son Joachim committed suicide.
Remarriage
With second wife, Hermine, and her daughter, Princess HenrietteThe following January, Wilhelm received a birthday greeting from a son of the late Prince Johann George Ludwig Ferdinand August Wilhelm of Schönaich-Carolath. The 63-year-old Wilhelm invited the boy and his mother, Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz, to Doorn. Wilhelm found Hermine very attractive, and greatly enjoyed her company. The couple were wed on 9 November 1922, despite the objections of Wilhelm's monarchist supporters and his children. Hermine's daughter, Princess Henriette, married the late Prince Joachim's son, Karl Franz Josef, in 1940, but divorced in 1946. Hermine remained a constant companion to the aging Emperor until his death.
Titles and styles
Koner, Max (1890), Wilhelm II27 January 1859 – 9 March 1888: His Royal Highness Prince Wilhelm of Prussia9 March 1888 – 15 June 1888: His Imperial and Royal Highness The German Crown Prince, Crown Prince of Prussia15 June 1888 – 18 November 1918: His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor, King of Prussia
Decorations and awards
This article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the Italian Wikipedia.German awardsGrand Master of the following Orders:Order of the Black EagleOrder of Merit of the Prussian CrownOrder of the Red EagleOrder of the Crown (Prussia)Royal House Order of HohenzollernPour le MériteIron Cross and Knight Grand CrossOrder of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg)Knight of the Order of the Rue Crown (Saxony)Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert (Bavaria)Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph (Bavaria)Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry (Saxony)Hanseatic Crosses of Bremen, Hamburg and LübeckMilitary Merit Cross, 1st class (Mecklenburg-Schwerin)Friedrich Cross, 1st class (Duchy of Anhalt)Foreign honoursKnight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (Spain)Knight of the Order of the Garter (United Kingdom) – withdrawn in 1915Knight of the Order of St. Andrew (Russian Empire)Knight of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark)Knight of the Order of the Seraphim (Sweden)Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (1873, Kingdom of Italy)Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (1873, Kingdom of Italy)Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy (1873, Kingdom of Italy)Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Norwegian Lion (Norway)Knight of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius (Kingdom of Bulgaria)Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
"Franz Joseph" redirects here. For other uses, see Franz Joseph (disambiguation).Franz Joseph IFranz Joseph in c. 1898Emperor of Austria (more...)Reign2 December 1848 – 21 November 1916PredecessorFerdinand ISuccessorCharles IApostolic King of Hungary (more...)Reign2 December 1848 – 21 November 1916PredecessorFerdinand ISuccessorCharles ISpouseElisabeth of BavariaIssueArchduchess SophieArchduchess GiselaRudolf, Crown Prince of AustriaArchduchess Marie ValerieHouseHouse of Habsburg-LorraineFatherArchduke Franz Karl of AustriaMotherPrincess Sophie of BavariaBorn18 August 1830Schönbrunn Palace, ViennaDied21 November 1916 (aged 86)Schönbrunn Palace, ViennaBurialImperial CryptSignatureReligionRoman CatholicFranz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I (German: Franz Joseph I., Hungarian: I. Ferenc József, 18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916) was Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary from 1848 until his death in 1916. From 1 May 1850 until 24 August 1866 he was President of theGerman Confederation.[1]In December 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne as part of Ministerpräsident Felix zu Schwarzenberg's plan to end the Revolutions of 1848 in Austria, which allowed Ferdinand's nephew Franz Joseph to ascend to the throne. Largely considered to be a reactionary, Franz Joseph spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains. The Austrian Empire was forced to cede most of its claim to Lombardy–Venetia to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardiniafollowing the conclusion of the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, and the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866. Although Franz Joseph ceded no territory to the Kingdom of Prussia after the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, the Peace of Prague (23 August 1866) settled the German question in favour of Prussia, which prevented the unification of Germany under the House of Habsburg (Großdeutsche Lösung).[2]Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism during his entire reign. He concluded the Ausgleich of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary, hence transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire under his dual monarchy. His domains were then ruled peacefully for the next 45 years, although Franz Joseph personally suffered the tragedies of the suicide of his son, Crown Prince Rudolf in 1889, and the assassination of his wife, Empress Elisabeth in 1898.After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, which was a hotspot of international tension due to conflicting interests with the Russian Empire. The Bosnian crisis was a result of Franz Joseph's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin (1878). On 28 June 1914, theassassination of the heir-presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, at the hands of Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist, resulted in Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia, which was Russia's ally. This activated a system of alliances which resulted in World War I.Franz Joseph died on 21 November 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years. He was succeeded by his grandnephew Karl.
Early lifeEdit
Archduke Franz Joseph in 1840 (portrait by Moritz Daffinger).Franz Joseph was born in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the oldest son of Archduke Franz Karl (the younger son of Holy Roman Emperor Francis II), and his wife Princess Sophie of Bavaria. Because his uncle, from 1835 the Emperor Ferdinand, was weak-minded, and his father unambitious and retiring, the young Archduke "Franzl" was brought up by his mother as a future Emperor with emphasis on devotion, responsibility and diligence. Franzl came to idolise his grandfather, der Gute Kaiser Franz, who had died shortly before the former's fifth birthday, as the ideal monarch. At the age of 13, young Archduke Franz started a career as a colonel in the Austrian army. From that point onward, his fashion was dictated by army style and for the rest of his life he normally wore the uniform of a military officer.[3]Franz Joseph was soon joined by three younger brothers: Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian (born 1832, the future Emperor Maximilian of Mexico); Archduke Karl Ludwig (born 1833, and the father of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria), and Archduke Ludwig Viktor (born 1842), and a sister,Maria Anna (born 1835), who died at the age of four.[4]Following the resignation of the Chancellor Prince Metternich during the Revolutions of 1848, the young Archduke, who it was widely expected would soon succeed his uncle on the throne, was appointed Governor of Bohemia on 6 April, but never took up the post. Instead, Franz was sent to the front in Italy, joining Field Marshal Radetzky on campaign on 29 April, receiving his baptism of fire on 5 May at Santa Lucia. By all accounts he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the Imperial Family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the calmer setting of Innsbruck, in Tyrol. Soon, the Archduke was called back from Italy, joining the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was at Innsbruck at this time that Franz Joseph first met his cousin Elisabeth, his future bride, then a girl of ten, but apparently the meeting made little impact.[5]Austrian RoyaltyHouse of Habsburg-LorraineFrancis I(Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor)Children include Archduchess Marie Louise Ferdinand I Archduchess Maria Leopoldina Archduchess Clementina Archduke Franz KarlGrandchildren include Franz Joseph I Archduke Maximilian Archduke Karl Ludwig Archduke Ludwig ViktorGreat-grandchildren include Archduke Franz Ferdinand Archduke Otto FranzFerdinand IFranz Joseph IChildren Archduchess Sophie Archduchess Gisela Crown Prince Rudolf Archduchess Marie ValerieGrandchildren include Archduchess Elisabeth MarieCharles IChildren include Crown Prince Otto Archduke Robert Archduke Felix Archduke Karl Ludwig Archduke RudolfGrandchildren include Archduchess Andrea Archduchess Monika Archduchess Michaela Archduchess Gabriela Archduchess Walburga Archduke Karl Archduke Georg Archduke LorenzGreat-Grandchildren include Archduke Ferdinand Zvonimir Archduke AmedeoFollowing victory over the Italians at Custoza in late July, the court felt safe to return to Vienna, and Franz Joseph travelled with them. But within a few months Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September the court left again, this time for Olmütz in Moravia. By now, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, the influential military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young Archduke soon put onto the throne. It was thought that a new ruler would not be bound by the oaths to respect constitutional government to which Ferdinand had been forced to agree, and that it was necessary to find a young, energetic emperor to replace the kindly, but mentally unfit Emperor.[6]It was thus at Olmütz on 2 December that, by the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father, the mild-mannered Franz Karl, Franz Joseph succeeded as Emperor of Austria. It was at this time that he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name. The name "Franz Joseph" was chosen deliberately to bring back memories of the new Emperor's great-granduncle, Emperor Joseph II, remembered as a modernising reformer.[7]
Domestic policyEdit
Franz Joseph I as young man in 1851 (portrait by Johann Ranzi)Under the guidance of the new prime minister Prince Schwarzenberg, the new emperor at first pursued a cautious course, granting a constitution in early 1849. At the same time, military campaigns were necessary against the Hungarians, who had rebelled against Habsburg central authority under the name of their ancient liberties. Franz Joseph was also almost immediately faced with a renewal of the fighting in Italy, with King Charles Albert of Sardinia taking advantage of setbacks in Hungary to resume the war in March 1849. Soon, though, the military tide began to turn in favor of Franz Joseph and the Austrian whitecoats. Almost immediately, Charles Albert was decisively beaten by Radetzky at Novara, and forced both to sue for peace and to abdicate his throne. In Hungary, the situation was more grave and Austrian defeat was quite possible. Sensing a need to secure his right to rule, he sought help from Russia, requesting the intervention of Tsar Nicholas I, in order "to prevent the Hungarian insurrection developing into a European calamity."[8] Russian troops entered Hungary in support of the Austrians and the revolution was crushed by late summer of 1849. With order now restored throughout the Empire, Franz Joseph felt free to go back on the constitutional concessions he had made, especially as the Austrian parliament, meeting at Kremsier, had behaved, in the young Emperor's view, abominably. The 1849 constitution was suspended, and a policy of absolutist centralism was established, guided by the Minister of the Interior, Alexander Bach.[9]The next few years saw the seeming recovery of Austria's position on the international scene following the near disasters of 1848–1849. Under Schwarzenberg's guidance, Austria was able to stymie Prussian scheming to create a new German Federation under Prussian leadership, excluding Austria. After Schwarzenberg's premature death in 1852, he could not be replaced by statesmen of equal stature, and the Emperor effectively took over himself as prime minister.[9]
Assassination attempt in 1853
Assassination attempt on the Emperor, 1853On 18 February 1853, the Emperor survived an assassination attempt by Hungarian nationalistJános Libényi.[10] The emperor was taking a stroll with one of his officers, Maximilian Karl Lamoral O'Donnell, on a city-bastion, when Libényi approached him. He immediately struck the emperor from behind with a knife straight at the neck. Franz Joseph almost always wore a uniform, which had a high collar that almost completely enclosed the neck. The collars of uniforms at that time were made from very sturdy material exactly to counter this kind of attack. Even though the Emperor was wounded and bleeding, the collar saved his life. Count O'Donnell (descendant of the Irish noble dynasty O'Donnell of Tyrconnell[11]) struck Libényi down with his sabre.[10] O'Donnell, hitherto only a Count by virtue of his Irish nobility, was thereafter made a Count of the Habsburg Empire, conferred with the Commander's Cross of the Royal Order of Leopold, and his customary O'Donnell arms were augmented by the initials and shield of the ducal House of Austria, with additionally the double-headed eagle of the Empire. These arms are emblazoned on the portico of no. 2 Mirabel Platz in Salzburg, where O'Donnell built his residence thereafter. Another witness who happened to be nearby, the butcher Joseph Ettenreich, quickly overwhelmed Libényi. For his deed he was later elevated to nobility by the Emperor and becameJoseph von Ettenreich. Libényi was subsequently put on trial and condemned to death for attempted regicide. He was executed on the Simmeringer Heide. After this unsuccessful attack, the Emperor's brother Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph, later Emperor of Mexico, called upon Europe's royal families for donations to a new church on the site of the attack. The church was to be a votive offering for the survival of the Emperor. It is located on Ringstraße in the district ofAlsergrund close to the University of Vienna, and is known as the Votivkirche.[10]
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
Coronation as King of Hungary in 1867The 1850s witnessed several failures of Austrian external policy: the Crimean War and break-up with Russia, and defeat in the Second Italian War of Independence. The setbacks continued in the 1860s with defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which resulted in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.[12]Political difficulties in Austria mounted continuously through the late 1800s and into the 20th century. But Franz Joseph remained immensely respected. His patriarchal authority held the Empire together while the politicians squabbled.[13]
Foreign policyEdit
Rare film footage of the emperor, being greeted, circa 1910
The German question
The main foreign policy goal of Franz Joseph I had been the unification of Germany under theHouse of Habsburg.[14] This was justified on grounds of precedence; from 1452 to the end of theHoly Roman Empire in 1806, with only one period of interruption under the Wittelsbachs, the Habsburgs had generally held the German crown.[15] However, Franz Joseph's desire to retain the non-German territories of the Habsburg Austrian Empire in the event of German unification proved problematic. There quickly developed two factions, one party of German intellectuals favouring a Greater Germany under the House of Habsburg; the others favouring a Lesser Germany. The Greater Germans favoured the inclusion of Austria in a new all-German state on the grounds that Austria (Österreich) had always been a part of Germanic empires, that it was the leading power of the German Confederation, and that it would be absurd to exclude eight millionAustrian Germans from an all-German nation state. The champions of a lesser Germany argued against the inclusion of Austria on the grounds that it was a multination state, not a German one, and that its inclusion would bring millions of non-Germans into the German nation state.[16] If Greater Germany was to prevail, the crown would necessarily have to go to Franz Joseph, who had no desire to cede it in the first place to anyone else.[16] On the other hand, if the idea of a smaller Germany won out, the German crown could of course not possibly go the Emperor of Austria, but would naturally be offered to the head of the largest and most powerful German state outside of Austria–the King of Prussia. The contest between the two ideas thus quickly developed into a contest between Austria and Prussia. After Prussia decisively won the Seven Weeks war, this question was solved; Austria lost no territories as long as they remained out of German affairs.[16]
The Three Emperors League
In 1873, two years after the unification of Germany, Franz Joseph entered into the League of Three Emperors with Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany and Tsar Alexander II of Russia (who was succeeded by Tsar Alexander III in 1881). The league had been designed by the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, as an attempt to maintain the peace of Europe. It would last intermittently until 1887.
The Czech Question
Many Czech people were waiting for political changes in monarchy, including Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and others. Masaryk served in the Reichsrat (Austrian Parliament) from 1891 to 1893 in the Young Czech Party and again from 1907 to 1914 in the Realist Party (which he founded in 1900), but he did not campaign for the independence of Czechs and Slovaks from Austria-Hungary. In 1909 he helped Hinko Hinković in Vienna in the defense during the fabricated trial against mostly prominent Croats and Serbs, members of the Croato-Serb Coalition (such as Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević), and others, who were sentenced to more than 150 years and a number of death penalties. Problem with Czech question was not solved during all Franz Joseph's political career.
The Vatican
In 1903, Franz Joseph's veto of Cardinal Rampolla's election to the papacy was transmitted to the conclave by Cardinal Jan Puzyna. It was the last use of such a veto, because new Pope Pius X provided penalties for such.[17][18]
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Main article: Bosnian crisisIn 1908, the Austria's foreign minister, Alois von Aehrenthal, made a secret deal with the Russian foreign minister, Alexander Izvolsky in which the Russians would not oppose the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in exchange for the opening of the Bosporus Strait and the Dardanellesto Russian warships, an amendment of the 1878 Treaty of Berlin . However, Izvolsky made this agreement with Aehrenthal without the knowledge of Tsar Nicholas II, his government in St. Petersburg, nor any of the other foreign powers including Britain, France and Serbia.Despite the fact that this agreement was engineered by Aehrenthal, Franz Joseph was aware of it, and when the emperor signed the proclamation announcing the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina into the empire on 6 October 1908, a diplomatic crisis erupted. The matter would not be solved until the revision of the Treaty of Berlin in April 1909. The incident served to exacerbate tensions between Austria-Hungary and the Serbs.
Outbreak of World War IEdit
Tomb of Franz Joseph I, in the Imperial Crypt, ViennaAfter the death of Crown Prince Rudolf, Franz Joseph's nephew, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, became heir to the throne. On 28 June 1914, Franz Ferdinand and his morganatic wife, Countess Sophie Chotek, were assassinated on a visit to Sarajevo. When he heard the news of the assassination, Franz Joseph said that "one has not to defy the Almighty. In this manner a superior power has restored that order which I unfortunately was unable to maintain."[19]While the emperor was shaken, and interrupted his vacation in order to return to Vienna, he soon resumed his vacation to his imperial villa at Bad Ischl. With the emperor five hours away from capital, most of the decision-making during the "July Crisis" fell to Count Leopold Berchtold, the Austrian foreign minister, Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, the chief of staff for the Austrian army, and the rest of the ministers.[20] On 21 July, Franz Joseph was apparently surprised by the severity of the ultimatum that was to be sent to the Serbs, and expressed his concerns that Russia would be unwilling to stand idly by, yet he nevertheless chose to not question Berchtold's judgment.[21] A week after the ultimatum, on 28 July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and two days later, the Austro-Hungarians and the Russians went to war. Within weeks, the French and British entered the fray. Because of his age, Franz Joseph was unable to take as much as an active part in the war in comparison to past conflicts.[22]
DeathEdit
Franz Joseph died in the Schönbrunn Palace on the evening of 21 October 1916, aged 86, during World War I. His death was a result of him developing pneumonia of the right lung several days after catching a cold while he was walking in Schonbrunn Park with the King of Bavaria.[23] He was succeeded by his grand-nephew Karl. But two years later, after the defeat in World War I, theAustro-Hungarian Monarchy was dissolved.[24]His 68-year reign is the third-longest in the recorded history of Europe (after those of Louis XIV of France and Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein).[25]He is buried in the Kaisergruft in Vienna, where flowers are still left by modern imperialists.
FamilyEdit
Franz Joseph I with his familyIt was generally felt in the court that the Emperor should marry and produce heirs as soon as possible. Various potential brides were considered: Princess Elisabeth of Modena, Princess Anna of Prussia and Princess Sidonia of Saxony.[26] Although in public life the Emperor was the unquestioned director of affairs, in his private life his formidable mother still had a crucial influence. She wanted to strengthen the relationship between the Houses of Habsburg andWittelsbach, descending from the latter house herself, and hoped to match Franz Joseph with her sister Ludovika's eldest daughter, Helene ("Nené"), four years the Emperor's junior. However, the Emperor became besotted with Nené's younger sister, Elisabeth ("Sisi"), a girl of sixteen, and insisted on marrying her instead. Sophie acquiesced, despite some misgivings about Sisi's appropriateness as an imperial consort, and the young couple were married on 24 April 1854 inSt. Augustine's Church, Vienna.[27]Their married life was not happy. Sisi never really adapted herself to the court and always had disagreements with the imperial family; their first daughter Sophie died as an infant; and their only son, Crown Prince Rudolf, died by suicide in 1889, in the infamous Mayerling Incident.[17]In 1885 Franz Joseph met Katharina Schratt, a leading actress of the Vienna stage, and she became his mistress.[28] This relationship lasted the rest of his life, and was, to a certain degree, tolerated by Sisi. Franz Joseph built Villa Schratt in Bad Ischl for her, and also provided her with a small palace in Vienna.[29]The Empress was an inveterate traveller, horsewoman, and fashion maven who was rarely seen in Vienna. She was stabbed to death by an Italian anarchist in 1898 while on a visit to Geneva; Franz Joseph never fully recovered from the loss. According to the future empress Zita of Bourbon-Parma he usually told his relatives: "You'll never know how important she was to me" or, according to some sources, "You will never know how much I loved this woman." (although there is no definite proof he actually said this).[30]
Relationship with Franz Ferdinand
With Rudolf's death, Archduke Franz Ferdinand became heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. The aging emperor Franz Joseph, had a fairly contentious relationship with his nephew, however. He had never been a favorite nephew of the emperor. Franz Ferdinand had earned the ire of Franz Joseph in declaring his desire to marry Sophie Chotek, a marriage that was out of the question in the mind of the emperor, as Chotek was merely a countess, as opposed to being of royal or imperial blood. Despite the fact that the emperor was receiving letters from members of the imperial family throughout the fall and winter of 1899, Franz Joseph stood his ground.[31] Franz Joseph finally consented to the marriage in 1900. However, the marriage was to be morganatic and any children that they were to have would be ineligible to succeed to the throne.[32] The couple were married on 1 July 1900. The emperor did not attend the wedding, nor did any of the archdukes. After that, the two men disliked and distrusted each other.[29]Following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie in 1914, Franz Joseph's daughter, Marie Valerie noted that her father expressed his greater confidence in his new heir presumptive, his great-nephew, Archduke Karl.[33] The emperor admitted to his daughter, regarding the assassination, that, "for me, it is a relief from a great worry."[33]
IssueEdit
NameBirthDeathNotesBy Duchess Elisabeth in Bavaria (24 December 1837 – 10 September 1898; married on 24 April 1854 in St. Augustine's Church, Vienna)Sophie Friederike Dorothea Maria Josepha5 March 185529 May 1857died in childhoodGisela Louise Marie15 July 185627 July 1932married, 1873 her second cousin, Prince Leopold of Bavaria; had issueRudolf Francis Charles Joseph21 August 185830 January 1889died in the Mayerling Incidentmarried, 1881, Princess Stephanie of Belgium; had issueMarie Valerie Mathilde Amalie22 April 18686 September 1924married, 1890 her second cousin, Archduke Franz Salvator, Prince of Tuscany; had issue
AncestorsEdit
Orders, decorations, and honoursEdit
Austrian decorationsEmperor Franz Joseph was Grand Master of the following chivalric orders:Order of the Golden Fleece (ex officio as Emperor of Austria)Military Order of Maria Theresa (Militär Maria-Theresien-Orden, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)Royal Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen (Königlich ungarischer St. Stephan-Orden, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)Order of Leopold (Leopold-Orden, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)Order of the Iron Crown (Orden der Eisernen Krone, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)Imperial Order of Franz JosephOrder of ElizabethHe was awarded the following military medals:War MedalCross of Honour for 50 years of military serviceMilitary Cross for the 60th year of the reignFranz Joseph founded the Order of Franz Joseph (Franz Joseph-Orden), 1849, and the Order of Elizabeth (Elizabeth-Orden), 1898.Foreign decorationsOrder of Milosh the Great, Kingdom of SerbiaKnight of the Supreme Order of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (Kingdom of Italy) – 1869Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Kingdom of Italy) – 1869Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy (Kingdom of Italy) – 1869Knight of the Order of the Garter (United Kingdom) – 1867 (Expelled in 1915)Royal Victorian Chain (UK) 'Expelled in 1915 [10] "- 1904Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (United Kingdom) (Expelled in 1915)Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph (Bavaria)Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle (Prussia)Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle (Prussia)Pour le Mérite ("Blue Max", Prussia)Knight Grand Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern (German Empire)Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I (Montenegro)Knight Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order (Grand Duchy of Hesse)Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Norwegian Lion (Norway)Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry (Saxony)Knight of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius (Kingdom of Bulgaria)Knight of the Order of St. Andrew (Russian Empire)Imperial Order of St. George, 4th class (Russian Empire)Bailiff of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of MaltaKnight Grand Cross of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre (Vatican)Senator Grand Cross with Necklace of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George(6 September 1849, Duchy of Parma)Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Kamehameha I (Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, 1865)Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Order of Kalākaua (Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, 1878)Honorary appointmentsColonel-in-chief, 1st (The King's) Dragoon Guards, British Army, 25 March 1896 – 1914Colonel-in-chief, Kexholm Life Guards Grenadier Regiment, Russian Army, until 26 June 1914Colonel-in-chief, 12th Belgorod Lancer Regiment, Russian Army, until 26 June 1914Colonel-in-chief, 16th (Schleswig-Holstein) Hussars, German ArmyColonel-in-chief, 122nd (Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria, King of Hungary (4th Württemberg) FusiliersField Marshal, British Army, 1 September 1903 – 1914
LegacyEdit
The archipelago Franz Josef Land in the Russian high Arctic was named in his honor in 1873.Franz Josef Glacier in New Zealand's South Island bears his name.Franz Joseph founded in 1872 the Franz Joseph University (Hungarian: Ferenc József Tudományegyetem, Romanian: Universitatea Francisc Iosif) in the city of Cluj-Napoca (at that time a part of Austria-Hungary under the name of Kolozsvár). The university was moved toSzeged after Cluj became a part of Romania, becoming the University of Szeged.In certain areas, celebrations are still being held in remembrance of Franz Joseph's birthday. The Mitteleuropean People's Festival takes place every year around 18 August, and is a "spontaneous, traditional and brotherly meeting among peoples of the Central-European Countries[34] ". The event includes ceremonies, meetings, music, songs, dances, wine and food tasting, and traditional costumes and folklore from Mitteleuropa.Monarchical styles ofFranz Joseph I of Austria-HungaryReference styleHis Imperial and Royal Apostolic MajestySpoken styleYour Imperial and Royal Apostolic MajestyAlternative styleMy LordMonarchical styles ofFranz Joseph I of AustriaReference styleHis Imperial MajestySpoken styleYour Imperial MajestyAlternative styleMy LordMonarchical styles ofFranz Joseph I of HungaryReference styleHis Apostolic MajestySpoken styleYour Apostolic MajestyAlternative styleMy Lord
Official Grand TitleEdit
His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty,Franz Joseph I, by the Grace of God Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary, Bohemia, King ofLombardy and Venice, of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria and Illyria; King ofJerusalem etc., Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany and Cracow, Duke of Lorraine, ofSalzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and of the Bukovina; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Upper and Lower Silesia, of Modena, Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, ofAuschwitz, Zator and Teschen, Friuli, Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Zara (Zadar); Princely Count ofHabsburg and Tyrol, of Kyburg, Gorizia and Gradisca; Prince of Trent (Trento) and Brixen; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria; Count of Hohenems, Feldkirch, Bregenz,Sonnenberg, etc.; Lord of Trieste, of Cattaro (Kotor), and over the Windic march..[35]After 1867:His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty,Francis Joseph I, by the grace of God Emperor of Austria; Apostolic King of Hungary, King of Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Illyria; King of Jerusalem, etc.; Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany, Crakow; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Bukovina; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of the Upper & Lower Silesia, Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Guastalla, Oswiecin, Zator, Cieszyn, Friuli, Ragusa, Zara; Princely Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg, Gorizia, Gradisca; Prince of Trent, Brixen; Margrave of the Upper & Lower Lusatia, in Istria; Count of Hohenems, Feldkirch, Bregenz, Sonnenberg, etc.; Lord of Triest, Kotor, the Wendish March; Grand Voivode of the Voivodship of Serbia etc. etc..
Personal mottoEdit
Imperial monogram"mit vereinten Kräften" (German) = "Viribus Unitis" (Latin) = "With united forces" (as the Emperor of Austria). A homonymous war ship existed."Bizalmam az Ősi Erényben" (Hungarian) = "Virtutis Confido" (Latin) = "My trust in [the ancient] virtue" (as the Apostolic King of Hungary)
In popular cultureEdit
Franz Joseph is a character in both the 1930 operetta/musical The White Horse Inn (inGerman: Im weißen Rößl) and the Danish 1964 film (inspired by the operetta/musical) Summer in Tyrol (in Danish: Sommer i Tyrol), starring actor Peter Malberg as the Emperor in the latter.In the 1974 BBC miniseries Fall of Eagles, he was played by Miles Anderson as a young man and by Laurence Naismith in old age.In Kronprinz Rudolf (2006) (TV Movie)aka "The Crown Prince", a retelling of the tragic love affair between Austrian Archduke Rudolf, the only son of the aging Emperor, and Baroness Mary Vetsera, in which Franz Joseph I is played by Klaus Maria Brandauer.Franz Joseph I is seen as part of a Tom and Jerry cartoon episode in which the cat and mouse duo are set in c. 1890's Vienna. Word of their accidental yet successful cooperation in piano play receives the attention of the public and high Imperial officials, eventually leading to 'the Emperor himself!', who then organizes a royal command concert, mimicking the famous concert Empress Maria Theresa once arranged for child prodigy Amadeus Mozart in 1762.
On 19 September 1868, the Emperor announced that the name of the city of Edo was being changed to Tokyo, or "eastern capital". He was formally crowned in Kyoto on 15 October (a ceremony which had been postponed from the previous year due to the unrest). Shortly before the coronation, he announced that the new era, or nengō, would be called Meiji or "enlightened rule". Heretofore the nengō had often been changed multiple times in an emperor's reign; from now on, it was announced, there would only be one nengō per reign.[37]Soon after his coronation, the Emperor journeyed to Tokyo by road, visiting it for the first time. He arrived in late November, and began an extended stay by distributing sake among the population. The population of Tokyo was eager for an Imperial visit; it had been the site of the Shogun's court and the population feared that with the abolition of the shogunate, the city might fall into decline.[38] It would not be until 1889 that a final decision was made to move the capital to Tokyo.[39] While in Tokyo, the Emperor boarded a Japanese naval vessel for the first time, and the following day gave instructions for studies to see how Japan's navy could be strengthened.[40]Soon after his return to Kyoto, a rescript was issued in the Emperor's name (but most likely written by court officials). It indicated his intent to be involved in government affairs, and indeed he attended cabinet meetings and innumerable other government functions, though rarely speaking, almost until the day of his death.[41]In 1871, the Emperor announced that domains were entirely abolished, as Japan was organized into 72 prefectures. The daimyo were compensated with annual salaries equal to ten percent of their former revenues (from which they did not now have to deduct the cost of governing), but were required to move to the new capital, Tokyo. Most retired from politics.[44]The new administration gradually abolished most privileges of the samurai, including their right to a stipend from the government. However, unlike the daimyo, many samurai suffered financially from this change. Most other class-based distinctions were abolished. Legalized discrimination against the burakumin ended. However, these classes continue to suffer discrimination in Japan to the present time.[45]Although a parliament was formed, it had no real power, and neither did the emperor. Power had passed from the Tokugawa into the hands of those Daimyo and other samurai who had led the Restoration. Japan was thus controlled by the Genro, an oligarchy, which comprised the most powerful men of the military, political, and economic spheres. The emperor, if nothing else, showed greater political longevity than his recent predecessors, as he was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 50 since the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi in 1586.The Japanese take pride in the Meiji Restoration, as it and the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan to become the preeminent power in the Pacific and a major player in the world within a generation. Yet, the Meiji emperor's role in the Restoration remains debatable. He certainly did not control Japan, but how much influence he wielded is unknown. It is unlikely it will ever be clear whether he supported the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) or the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). One of the few windows we have into the Emperor's own feelings is his poetry, which seems to indicate a pacifist streak, or at least a man who wished war could be avoided. He composed the following pacifist poem:よもの海みなはらからと思ふ世になど波風のたちさわぐらむ [46]Yomo no umimina harakara to omofu yo ninado namikaze no tachi sawaguramu [46]The seas of the four directions—all are born of one womb:why, then, do the wind and waves rise in discord? [46]Near the end of his life several anarchists, including Kotoku Shusui, were executed (1911) on charges of having conspired to murder the sovereign. This conspiracy was known as the High Treason Incident (1910).
DeathEdit
The Meiji Emperor, suffering from diabetes, nephritis, and gastroenteritis, died of uremia. Although the official announcement said he died at 00:42 on 30 July 1912, the actual death was at 22:40 on 29 July.[47][48] After the emperor's death in 1912, the Japanese Diet passed a resolution to commemorate his role in the Meiji Restoration. An iris garden in an area of Tokyo where the Meiji Emperor and Empress had been known to visit was chosen as the building's location for the Shinto shrine Meiji jingu.
Timeline of events during the life and reign of the Meiji EmperorEdit
The Meiji emperor receiving the Order of the Garter from Prince Arthur of Connaught in 1906, as a consequence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.[49]The Meiji era ushered in many far-reaching changes to the ancient feudal society of Japan. A timeline of major events might include:3 November 1852: the Meiji emperor (then known as Sachinomiya) is born to the imperial concubine Nakayama Yoshiko and Emperor Komei1853: A fleet of ships headed by Commodore Matthew Perry arrives in Japan on 8 July; considered by German Japanologist Johannes Justus Rein and described by Francis L. Hawks and Commodore Matthew Perry in their 1856 work, Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852, 1853 and 1854 under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry, United States Navy., as the "Opening" of Japan. Death of the Shogun.1854–55: Treaties are signed with the United States by the Bakufulate 1850s–1860s: The "Sonnō jōi" movement is in full force.1858: The Bakufu sign treaties with the Netherlands, Imperial Russia, and Great Britain.March 1860: The Tairo, Ii Naosuke, is assassinated in the Sakuradamon incident.11 November: Sachinomiya is formally proclaimed Crown Prince and given the personal name Mutsuhito.1862: Namamugi Incident1864–65: Bombardment of Shimonoseki by British, American, French, and Dutch ships; fighting ensues between the shogunate and Chōshū.1866: Death of the Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi on 29 August; appointment of Tokugawa Yoshinobu as Shogun.31 January 1867: Death of Emperor Komei from hemorrhagic smallpox, unofficial accession of Mutsuhito to the throne.4 January 1868: Formal restoration of imperial rule; end of 265 years of rule by the Tokugawa Shogunate12 September: Formal coronation of the emperor.23 October: The nengo is changed to Meiji.6 November: The capital is moved from Kyoto to Edo, renamed Tokyo.5 November 1872: The Meiji Emperor receives The Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russialate 1860s–1881: Period of rebellion and assassination in Japan.11 January 1869: Marriage of the emperor to Ichijo Haruko, thenceforth the Empress Shoken.4 September: The emperor receives The Duke of Edinburgh.1871: The abolition of the han domains is proclaimed.1873: Edo castle is destroyed in a conflagration; the emperor moves to the Akasaka Palace. His first children are born, but die at birth.1877: The Satsuma Rebellion1878: Assassination of Okubo Toshimichi.31 August 1879: Prince Yoshihito, the future Taisho Tenno and the emperor's only surviving son, is born.1881: Receives the first state visit of a foreign monarch, King Kalakaua of Hawaii.1889: Meiji Constitution promulgated; Ito Hirobumi becomes first Prime Minister of Japan.1894: Sino-Japanese War; Japanese victory establishes Japan as a regional power.1904–1905: Russo-Japanese War; Japanese victory earns Japan the status of a great power.1910: The Annexation of Korea by the Empire of Japan.1912: The emperor dies.[1]
Concubines and childrenEdit
ConcubinesLady Mitsuko (1853 - 1873). Not much is known about Lady Mitsuko, however she gave birth to the Emperor's first son. She died in childbirth.Lady Natsuko (1856 – 14 November 1873). She gave birth to the Emperor's first daughter and also died in childbirth.Yanagihara Naruko (26 June 1859 – 16 October 1943). Natural mother of the Emperor Taishō.Chigusa Kotoko (1855 - 1944)Sono Sachiko (23 December 1867 – 7 July 1947)ChildrenImageNameBirthDeathMotherMarriageA prince稚瑞照彦尊18 September 187318 September 1873Lady Mitsuko葉室光子A princess稚高依姫尊13 November 187313 November 1873Lady Natsuko橋本夏子Shigeko, Princess Ume梅宮薫子内親王25 January 18758 June 1876Lady Naruko柳原愛子Yukihito, Prince Take建宮敬仁親王23 September 187726 July 1878Lady Naruko柳原愛子Yoshihito, Prince Haru (Emperor Taishō)明宮嘉仁親王(大正天皇)31 August 187925 December 1926 (aged 47)Lady Naruko柳原愛子Empress Teimei九条節子Akiko, Princess Shige滋宮韶子内親王3 August 18816 September 1883Lady Kotoko千種任子Fumiko, Princess Masu増宮章子内親王26 January 18838 September 1883Lady Kotoko千種任子Shizuko, Princess Hisa久宮静子内親王10 February 18864 April 1887Lady SachikoMichihito, Prince Aki昭宮猷仁親王22 August 188712 November 1888Lady SachikoMasako, Princess Tsune (Princess Masako Takeda)常宮昌子内親王30 September 18888 March 1940(aged 51)Lady SachikoTsunehisa, Prince Takeda竹田宮恒久王Fusako, Princess Kane (Fusako Kitashirakawa)周宮房子内親王28 January 189011 August 1974(aged 84)Lady SachikoNaruhisa, Prince Kitashirakawa北白川宮成久王Nobuko, Princess Fumi (Princess Nobuko Asaka)富美宮允子内親王7 August 18913 November 1933 (aged 42)Lady SachikoYasuhiko, Prince Asaka朝香宮鳩彦王Teruhito, Prince Mitsu満宮輝仁親王30 November 189317 August 1894Lady SachikoToshiko, Princess Yasu (Toshiko Higashikuni)泰宮聡子内親王11 May 18965 March 1978(aged 81)Lady SachikoNaruhiko, Prince Higashikuni東久邇宮稔彦王Takiko, Princess Sada貞宮多喜子内親王24 September 189711 January 1899Lady Sachiko
Titles and stylesEdit
Monarchical styles ofThe EmperorReference styleHis Imperial MajestySpoken styleYour Imperial MajestyAlternative styleSir3 November 1852 – 11 November 1860: His Imperial Highness The Prince Sachi11 November 1860 – 3 February 1867: His Imperial Highness The Crown Prince of Japan3 February 1867 – 30 July 1912: His Imperial Majesty The Emperor of JapanPosthumous title: His Imperial Majesty Emperor Meiji
HonoursEdit
National honours
Grand Cordon and Collar of the Order of the ChrysanthemumRecipient of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers
Foreign honours
United Kingdom : Knight of the Garter Spain : Knight of the Golden Fleece Sweden : Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim Kingdom of Italy : Knight of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation Kingdom of Hawaii : Recipient of the Royal Order of Kamehameha I Prussia : Recipient of the Order of the Black Eagle Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy Thailand : Order of the Royal House of ChakriMutsuhito was born on 3 November 1852 in a small house on his maternal grandfather's property at the north end of the Gosho. At the time, a birth was believed to be polluting, so imperial princes were not born in the Palace, but usually in a structure, often temporary, near the pregnant woman's father's house. The boy's mother, Nakayama Yoshiko was a concubine (gon no tenji) to Emperor Kōmei and the daughter of the acting major counselor, Nakayama Tadayasu.[10] The young prince was given the name Sachinomiya, or Prince Sachi.[11]Teenager Meiji Emperor with foreign representatives at the end of the Boshin War, 1868–1870.The young prince was born at a time of change for Japan. This change was symbolized dramatically when Commodore Matthew Perry and his squadron of what the Japanese dubbed "the Black Ships", sailed into the harbor at Edo (known since 1868 as Tokyo) in July 1853. Perry sought to open Japan to trade, and warned the Japanese of military consequences if they did not agree.[12] During the crisis brought on by Perry's arrival, the bakufu took the highly unusual step of consulting with the Imperial Court, and Emperor Kōmei's officials advised that they felt the Americans should be allowed to trade and asked that they be informed in advance of any steps to be taken upon Perry's return. This request was initially honored by the bakufu, and for the first time in at least 250 years, they consulted with the Imperial Court before making a decision.[13]Feeling that it could not win a war, the Japanese government allowed trade and submitted to what it dubbed the "Unequal Treaties", giving up tariff authority and the right to try foreigners in its own courts.[12] The bakufu's willingness to consult with the Court was short-lived: in 1858, word of a treaty arrived with a letter stating that due to shortness of time, it had not been possible to consult. Emperor Kōmei was so incensed that he threatened to abdicate—though even this action would have required the consent of the shogun.[14]Much of the Emperor's boyhood is known only through later accounts, which his biographer Donald Keene points out are often contradictory. One contemporary described the young prince as healthy and strong, somewhat of a bully and exceptionally talented at sumo. Another states that the prince was delicate and often ill. Some biographers state that he fainted when he first heard gunfire, while others deny this account.[15] On 16 August 1860, Sachinomiya was proclaimed prince of the blood and heir to the throne, and was formally adopted by his father's consort. Later that year on 11 November, he was proclaimed as the crown prince and given an adult name, Mutsuhito.[16] The prince began his education at the age of seven.[17] He proved an indifferent student, and later in life wrote poems regretting that he had not applied himself more in writing practice.[18]
Unrest and accessionEdit
Main articles: Meiji period, Meiji Restoration, Government of Meiji Japan, and Meiji ConstitutionThe young Meiji emperor, 1872. Albumen silver print by Uchida Kuichi.The young Meiji emperor in military dress – photographed by Uchida Kuichi in 1873By the early 1860s, the shogunate was under several threats. Representatives of foreign powers sought to increase their influence in Japan. Many daimyo were increasingly dissatisfied withbakufu handling foreign affairs. Large numbers of young samurai, known as shishi or "men of high purpose" began to meet and speak against the shogunate. The shishi revered the Emperor Kōmei and favored direct violent action to cure societal ills. While they initially desired the death or expulsion of all foreigners, the shishi would later prove more pragmatic, and begin to advocate the modernization of the country.[19] The bakufu enacted several measures to appease the various groups, and hoped to drive a wedge between the shishi and daimyo.[20]Kyoto was a major center for the shishi, who had influence over the Emperor Kōmei. In 1863, they persuaded him to issue an "Order to expel barbarians". The Order placed the shogunate in a difficult position, since it knew it lacked the power to carry it out. Several attacks were made on foreigners or their ships, and foreign forces retaliated. Bakufu forces were able to drive most of the shishi out of Kyoto, and an attempt by them to return in 1864 was driven back. Neverless, unrest continued throughout Japan.[20]The shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, in 1867.The prince's awareness of the political turmoil is uncertain.[21] During this time, he studied wakapoetry, first with his father, then with the court poets.[22] As the prince continued his classical education in 1866, a new shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu took office, a reformer who desired to transform Japan into a Western-style state. Yoshinobu, who would prove to be the final shogun, met with resistance from among the bakufu, even as unrest and military actions continued. In mid-1866, a bakufu army set forth to punish rebels in southern Japan. The army was defeated.[23]The Emperor Kōmei had always enjoyed excellent health, and was only 36 years old in January 1867. In that month, however, he fell seriously ill. Though he appeared to make some recovery, he suddenly worsened and died on 30 January. Many historians believe the Emperor Kōmei was poisoned, a view not unknown at the time: British diplomat Sir Ernest Satow wrote, "it is impossible to deny that [the Emperor Kōmei's] disappearance from the political scene, leaving as his successor a boy of fifteen or sixteen [actually fourteen], was most opportune".[24]The crown prince formally ascended to the throne on 3 February 1867, in a brief ceremony in Kyoto.[25] The new Emperor continued his classical education, which did not include matters of politics. In the meantime, the shogun, Yoshinobu, struggled to maintain power. He repeatedly asked for the Emperor's confirmation of his actions, which he eventually received, but there is no indication that the young Emperor was himself involved in the decisions. The shishi and other rebels continued to shape their vision of the new Japan, and while they revered the Emperor, they had no thought of having him play an active part in the political process.[26]The political struggle reached its climax in late 1867. In November, an agreement was reached by which Yoshinobu would maintain his title and some of his power, but the lawmaking power would be vested in a bicameral legislature based on the British model. The following month, the agreement fell apart as the rebels marched on Kyoto, taking control of the Imperial Palace.[27] On 4 January 1868, the Emperor ceremoniously read out a document before the court proclaiming the "restoration" of Imperial rule,[28] and the following month, documents were sent to foreign powers:[27]The Emperor of Japan announces to the sovereigns of all foreign countries and to their subjects that permission has been granted to the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu to return the governing power in accordance with his own request. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently the title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Tycoon, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs. It is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement.Mutsuhito[29]Yoshinobu resisted only briefly, but it was not until late 1869 that the final bakufu holdouts were finally defeated.[27] In the ninth month of the following year, the era was changed to Meiji, or “enlightened rule”, which was later used for the emperor's posthumous name. This marked the beginning of the custom of an era coinciding with an emperor's reign, and posthumously naming the emperor after the era during which he ruled.Soon after his accession, the Emperor's officials presented Ichijō Haruko to him as a possible bride. The future Empress was the daughter of an Imperial official, and was three years older than the groom, who would have to wait to wed until after his gembuku (manhood ceremony). The two married on 11 January 1869.[30] Known posthumously as Empress Shōken, she was the first Imperial Consort to receive the title of kōgō (literally, the Emperor's wife, translated as EmpressConsort), in several hundred years. Although she was the first Japanese Empress Consort to play a public role, she bore no children. However, the Meiji emperor had fifteen children by five official ladies-in-waiting. Only five of his children, a prince born to Lady Naruko (1855–1943), the daughter of Yanagiwara Mitsunaru, and four princesses born to Lady Sachiko (1867–1947), the eldest daughter of Count Sono Motosachi, lived to adulthood. They were:Wedding of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Princess Kujō SadakoCrown Prince Yoshihito (Haru-no-miya Yoshihito Shinnō), 3rd son, (31 August 1879 – 25 December 1926) (see Emperor Taishō).Princess Masako (Tsune-no-miya Masako Naishinnō), 6th daughter, (30 September 1888 – 8 March 1940) (see Princess Masako Takeda).Princess Fusako (Kane-no-miya Fusako Naishinnō), 7th daughter, (28 January 1890 – 11 August 1974) (see Fusako Kitashirakawa).Princess Nobuko (Fumi-no-miya Nobuko Naishinnō), 8th daughter, (7 August 1891 – 3 November 1933) (see Princess Nobuko Asaka).Princess Toshiko (Yasu-no-miya Toshiko Naishinnō), 9th daughter, (11 May 1896 – 5 March 1978) (see Toshiko Higashikuni).1892: The Homestead Strike in Homestead, Pennsylvania. Labor dispute between theAmalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (the AA) and the Carnegie Steel Companystarting in June, 1892. The union negotiated national uniform wage scales on an annual basis; helped regularize working hours, workload levels and work speeds; and helped improve working conditions. It also acted as a hiring hall, helping employers find scarce puddlers and rollers.[77]With the collective bargaining agreement due to expire on June 30, 1892, Henry Clay Frick(chairman of the company) and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase. Frick immediately countered with a 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit. Andrew Carnegieencouraged Frick to use the negotiations to break the union: "...the Firm has decided that the minority must give way to the majority. These works, therefore, will be necessarily non-union after the expiration of the present agreement."[78] Frick locked workers out of the plate mill and one of the open hearth furnaces on the evening of June 28. When no collective bargaining agreement was reached on June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. A high fence topped with barbed wire, begun in January, was completed and the plant sealed to the workers. Sniper towers with searchlights were constructed near each mill building, and high-pressure water cannons (some capable of spraying boiling-hot liquid) were placed at each entrance. Various aspects of the plant were protected, reinforced or shielded.[79][80]1892: Buffalo switchmen's strike in Buffalo, New York during August, 1892. In early 1892, theNew York State Legislature passed a law mandating a 10-hour work-day and increases in the day- and night-time minimum wage. On August 12, switchmen in the Buffalo railyards struck theLehigh Valley Railroad, the Erie Railroad and the Buffalo Creek Railroad after the companies refused to obey the new law.[81][82] On August 15, Democratic Governor Roswell P. Flower called out the New York State Guard to restore order and protect the railroads' property. However, State Guard Brigadier General Peter C. Doyle, commanding the Fourth Brigade, held a full-time position as an agent of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and was determined to crush the strike.[81]1892: New Orleans general strike taking place in New Orleans, Louisiana during November, 1892. 49 labor unions affiliated through the American Federation of Labor (AFL) had established a central labor council known as the Workingmen's Amalgamated Council that represented more than 20,000 workers. Three racially integrated unions—the Teamsters, the Scalesmen, and the Packers—made up what came to be called the "Triple Alliance." Many of the workers belonging to the unions of the Triple Alliance were African American.[83][84] The Triple Alliance started negotiations with the New Orleans Board of Trade in October. Employers utilized race-based appeals to try to divide the workers and turn the public against the strikers. The board of trade announced it would sign contracts agreeing to the terms—but only with the white-dominated Scalesmen and Packers unions. The Board of Trade refused to sign any contract with the black-dominated Teamsters. The Board of Trade and the city's newspapers also began a campaign designed to create public hysteria. The newspapers ran lurid accounts of "mobs of brutal Negro strikers" rampaging through the streets, of African American unionists "beating up all who attempted to interfere with them," and repeated accounts of crowds of blacks assaulting lone white men and women.[85] The striking workers refused to break ranks along racial lines. Large majorities of the Scalesmen and Packers unions passed resolutions affirming their commitment to stay out until the employers had signed a contract with the Teamsters on the same terms offered to other unions.[83] The Board of Trade's tactics essentially backfired when the Workingmen's Amalgamated Council called for a general strike, involving all of its unions. The city's supply of natural gas failed on November 8, as did the electrical grid, and the city was plunged into darkness. The delivery of food and beverages immediately ceased, generating alarm among city residents. Construction, printing, street cleaning, manufacturing and even fire-fighting services ground to a halt.[86][87]1893: The Panic of 1893 set off a widespread economic depression in the United States that lasts until 1896. One of the first signs of trouble was the bankruptcy of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, which had greatly over-extended itself, on February 23, 1893,[88] ten days before Grover Cleveland's second inauguration.[89] Some historians consider this bankruptcy to be the beginning of the Panic.[90] As concern of the state of the economy worsened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks and caused bank runs. The credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold.[91]People attempted to redeem silver notes for gold; ultimately the statutory limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached and US notes could no longer be successfully redeemed for gold.[91] Investments during the time of the Panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments. The National Cordage Company (the most actively traded stock at the time) went into receivership as a result of its bankers calling their loans in response to rumors regarding the NCC's financial distress. As the demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price and value of silver dropped. Holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds, and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and the Northern Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad failed. This was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies; in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks failed (many in the west). According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was unemployed at the Panic's peak. The huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings by failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet theirmortgage obligations. As a result, many walked away from recently built homes. From this, the sight of the vacant Victorian (haunted) house entered the American mindset.[92]1896: The United States presidential election, 1896 becomes a realigning election. Themonetary policy standard supported by the candidates of the two major parties arguably dominated their electoral campaigns. William Jennings Bryan, candidate of the ruling Democratic Party campaigned on a policy of Free Silver. His opponent William McKinley of the Republican Party, which had lost elections in 1884 and 1892, campaigned on a policy of Sound Money and maintaining the gold standard in effect since the 1870s. The "shorthand slogans" actually reflected "broader philosophies of finance and public policy, and opposing beliefs about justice, order, and 'moral economy.'",[93][94] The Republicans won the election and would win every election to 1912. Arguably ending the so-called Gilded Age. The McKinley administration would embrace American imperialism, its involvement in the Spanish–American War (1896–1898) leading the United States in playing a more active role in the world scene.[95] The termProgressive Era has been suggested for the period, though often covering the reforms lasting from the 1880s to the 1920s.[96]A typical gold miningoperation, on Bonanza Creek.1896–1899: The Klondike Gold Rush. In August, 1896, George Carmack, Kate Carmack, Keish,Dawson Charlie and Patsy Henderson, members of a Tagish First Nations family group, discovered rich placer gold deposits in Bonanza (Rabbit) Creek, Yukon, Canada.[97] Soon a massive movement of people, goods and money started moving towards the Klondike, Yukonregion and the nearby District of Alaska. Men from all walks of life headed for the Yukon from as far away as New York, South Africa,[98] the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,[99] and Australia. Surprisingly, a large proportion were professionals, such as teachers and doctors, even a mayor or two, who gave up respectable careers to make the journey. For instance, the residents of Camp Skagway Number One included: William Howard Taft, who went on to become a U.S. President; Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated American scout who arrived from Africa only to be called back to take part in the Second Boer War; and W. W. White, author and explorer.[100] Most were perfectly aware of their chance of finding significant amounts of gold were slim to none, and went for the adventure. As many as half of those who reached Dawson City kept right on going without doing any prospecting at all. Thus, by bringing large numbers of entrepreneurial adventurers to the region, the Gold Rush significantly contributed to the economic development of Western Canada, Alaska and the Pacific Northwest.[101] New cities were created as a result of the Gold Rush, including among others Dawson City, Fairbanks, Alaska and Anchorage, Alaska. The heyday of the individual prospector and the rush towards the north ended by 1899. Exploitation of the area by "big mining companies with their mechanical dredges" would last well into the 20th century.[102]1894: Cripple Creek miners' strike, a five-month strike by the Western Federation of Miners(WFM) in Cripple Creek, Colorado, United States. In January 1894, Cripple Creek mine owners J. J. Hagerman, David Moffat and Eben Smith, who together employed one-third of the area's miners, announced a lengthening of the work-day to ten hours (from eight), with no change to the daily wage of $3.00 per day. When workers protested, the owners agreed to employ the miners for eight hours a day – but at a wage of only $2.50.[103][104][105] Not long before this dispute, miners at Cripple Creek had formed the Free Coinage Union. Once the new changes went into effect, they affiliated with the Western Federation of Miners, and became Local 19. The union was based in Altman, and had chapters in Anaconda, Cripple Creek and Victor.[103] On February 1, 1894, the mine owners began implementing the 10-hour day. Union president John Calderwoodissued a notice a week later demanding that the mine owners reinstate the eight-hour day at the $3.00 wage. When the owners did not respond, the nascent union struck on February 7. Portland, Pikes Peak, Gold Dollar and a few smaller mines immediately agreed to the eight-hour day and remained open, but larger mines held out.[103]1894: Coxey's Army a protest march by unemployed workers from the United States, led by thepopulist Jacob Coxey. The purpose of the march was to protest the unemployment caused by thePanic of 1893 and to lobby for the government to create jobs which would involve building roadsand other public works improvements. The march originated with 100 men in Massillon, Ohio on March 25, 1894,[106] passing through Pittsburgh, Becks Run and Homestead, Pennsylvania in April.[107]1894: The Bituminous Coal Miners' Strike, an unsuccessful national eight-week strike by miners of hard coal in the United States, which began on April 21, 1894.[108] Initially, the strike was a major success. More than 180,000 miners in Colorado, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania andWest Virginia struck. In Illinois, 25,207 miners went on strike, while only 610 continued to work through the strike, with the average Illinois miner out of work for 72 days because of the strike.[109] In some areas of the country, violence erupted between strikers and mine operators or between striking and non-striking miners. On May 23 near Uniontown, Pennsylvania, 15 guards armed with carbines and machine guns held off an attack by 1500 strikers, killing 5 and wounding 8.[110]1894: May Day Riots, a series of violent demonstrations that occurred throughout Cleveland, Ohio on May 1, 1894 (May Day). Cleveland's unemployment rate increased dramatically during the Panic of 1893. Finally, riots broke out among the unemployed who condemned city leaders for their ineffective relief measures.[111]1894: The workers of the Pullman Company went on strike in Illinois. During the economicpanic of 1893, the Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages as demands for their train cars plummeted and the company's revenue dropped. A delegation of workers complained of the low wages and twelve-hour workdays, and that the corporation that operated the town of Pullman didn't decrease rents, but company owner George Pullman "loftily declined to talk with them."[112]The boycott was launched on June 26, 1894. Within four days, 125,000 workers on twenty-nine railroads had quit work rather than handle Pullman cars.[112] Adding fuel to the fire the railroad companies began hiring replacement workers (that is, strikebreakers), which only increased hostilities. Many African Americans, fearful that the racism expressed by the American Railway Union would lock them out of another labor market, crossed the picket line to break the strike; thus adding a racially charged tone to the conflict.[113]1896–1897: Leadville Colorado, Miners' Strike. The union local in the Leadville mining districtwas the Cloud City Miners' Union (CCMU), Local 33 of the Western Federation of Miners.[114] In 1896, representatives of the CCMU asked for a wage increase of fifty cents per day for all mine workers not already making three dollars per day.[115] The union felt justified, for fifty cents a day had been cut from the miners' wages during the depression of 1893.[116] By 1895, Leadville mines posted their largest combined output since 1889, and Leadville was then Colorado's most productive mine camp, producing almost 9.5 million ounces of silver.[117] The mine owners "were doing a lot better than they wanted anyone to know."[118] Negotiations over an increase in pay for the lower-paid mineworkers broke down, and 1,200 miners voted unanimously to strike all mines that were still paying at the lower rate. The next day 968 miners walked out, and mine ownerslocked out another 1,332 mine workers.[114] The Leadville strike set the scene not only for the WFM's consideration of militant tactics and its embrace of radicalism,[119] but also for the birth of the Western Labor Union (which became the American Labor Union), the WFM's participation in the founding of the Industrial Workers of the World,[120] and for events which culminated in theColorado Labor Wars.1898: Welsh coal strike, involving the colliers of South Wales and Monmouthshire. The strike began as an attempt by the colliers to remove the sliding scale, which determined their wage based on the price of coal. The strike quickly turned into a disastrous lockout which would last for six months and result in a failure for the colliers as the sliding scale stayed in place.[121] The strike officially ended on September 1, 1898.[122] The lack of organisation and vision apparent form the colliers' leaders was addressed by the foundation of the South Wales Miners' Federation, or 'the Fed'.[121]1899: Newsboys Strike in New York City, New York. The newsboys were not employees of the newspapers but rather purchased the papers from the publishers and sold them as independent agents. Not allowed to return unsold papers, the newsboys typically earned around 30 cents a day and often worked until very late at night.[123] Cries of "Extra, extra!" were often heard into the morning hours as newsboys attempted to hawk every last paper.[124] In 1898, with the Spanish–American War increasing newspaper sales, several publishers raised the cost of a newsboy bundle of 100 newspapers from 50¢ to 60¢, a price increase that at the time was offset by the increased sales. After the war, many papers reduced the cost back to previous levels, with the notable exceptions of the New York World and the New York Morning Journal. In July 1899, a large number of New York City newsboys refused to distribute the papers of Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the World, and William Randolph Hearst, publisher of the Journal. The strikers demonstrated across the Brooklyn Bridge for several days, effectively bringing traffic to a standstill,[125] along with the news distribution for most New England cities. Several rallies drew more than 5,000 newsboys, complete with charismatic speeches by strike leader Kid Blink.[126]Blink and his strikers were the subject of violence, as well. Hearst and Pulitzer hired men to break up rallies and protect the newspaper deliveries still underway.[127]1894: Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay.1895: Helium was discovered to exist on the Earth by William Ramsay, 27 years after first being detected spectrographically on the Sun in 1868.1896: One year after helium's terrestrial discovery, neon, krypton, and xenon were discovered by William Ramsay and Morris Travers.1897: Social scientist Émile Durkheim published the groundbreaking study Suicide.The Dreyfus Affair – a political scandal that divided France in the 1890s and the early 20th century. It involved the conviction for treason in November 1894 of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Alsatian Jewish descent.1896 Republican RealignmentThe 1896 Cross of Gold speech by William Jennings BryanA split erupted in Irish nationalism over a scandal involving the Irish leader Charles Stewart Parnell's affair with a fellow MP's wife, Kitty O'Shea.The New Imperialism1895: The Gongche Shangshu movement. In April, Over 1300 Jǔrén, present in Beijing to participate in the imperial examination, sign a petition requesting reforms by the Guangxu Emperor. Kang Youwei is the main organizer of the movement. In May, thousands of Beijing scholars and citizens protested against the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The Emperor would respond with the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898.[38]1894: The Greenwich Observatory bomb attack. This was possibly the first widely publicised terrorist incident in Britain.[39]1893–1897: War of Canudos, a conflict between the state of Brazil and a group of some 30,000 settlers under Antônio Conselheiro who had founded their own community in the northeastern state of Bahia, named Canudos. After a number of unsuccessful attempts at military suppression, it came to a brutal end in October 1897, when a large Brazilian army force overran the village and killed most of the inhabitants. The conflict started with Conselheiro and his jagunços (landless peasants) of this "remote and arid" area protesting against the payment of taxes to the distant government of Rio de Janeiro. They founded their own self-sufficient village, soon joined by others in search of a "Promised Land". By 1895, they refused requests by Rodrigues Lima,Governor of Bahia and Jeronimo Thome da Silva, Archbishop of São Salvador da Bahia to start obeying the laws of the Brazilian state and the rules of the Catholic Church. In 1896, a military expedition under Lieutenant Manuel da Silva Pires Ferreira was send to pacify them. It was instead attacked, defeated and forced to retreat. Increasingly stronger military forces were sent against Canudos, only to meet with fierce resistance and suffering heavy casualties. In October 1897, Canudos finally fell to the Brazilian military forces. "Those jagunços who were not killed in combat were taken prisoner and summarily executed (by beheading) by the army".[21]1894: The Donghak Peasant Revolution in Joseon Korea. The uprising started in Gobu during February 1894, with the peasant class protesting against the political corruption of local government officials. The revolution was named after Donghak, a Korean religion stressing "theequality of all human beings". The forces of Emperor Gojong failed in their attempt to suppress the revolt, with initial skirmishes giving way to major conflicts. The Korean government requested assistance from the Empire of Japan. Japanese troops, armed with "rifles andartillery", managed to suppress the revolution.[22] With Korea being a tributary state to Qing Dynasty China, the Japanese military presence was seen as a provocation. The resulting conflict over dominance of Korea would become the First Sino-Japanese War. In part, the government ofEmperor Meiji was acting to prevent expansion by the Russian Empire or any other great powertowards Korea. Viewing such an expansion as a direct threat to Japanese national security.[23]1895: The Doukhobors, a pacifist Christian sect of the Russian Empire, attempt to resist a number of laws and regulations forced on them by the Russian government. They are mostly active in the South Caucasus, where universal military conscription was introduced in 1887 and was still controversial. They also refuse to swear an oath of allegiance to Nicholas II, the new Russian Emperor.[24][25] Under further instructions from their exiled leader Peter Vasilevich Verigin, as a sign of absolute pacifism,the Doukhobors of the three Governorates of Transcaucasia made the decision to destroy their weapons. As the Doukhobors assembled to burn them on the night of June 28/29 (July 10/11, Gregorian Calendar) 1895, with the singing of psalms and spiritual songs, arrests and beatings by government Cossacks followed. Soon, Cossacks were billeted in many of the Large Party Doukhobors' villages, and over 4,000 of their original residents were dispersed through villages in other parts of Georgia. Many of those died of starvation and exposure.[25][26]1896–1898: The Philippine Revolution. The Philippines, part of the Spanish East Indies, attempt to secede from the Spanish Empire. The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, upon the discovery of the anti-colonial secret organization Katipunan by the Spanish authorities. TheKatipunan, led by Andrés Bonifacio, was a secessionist movement and shadow government spread throughout much of the islands whose goal was independence from Spain through armed revolt. In a mass gathering in Caloocan, the Katipunan leaders organized themselves into a revolutionary government and openly declared a nationwide armed revolution. Bonifacio called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the capital Manila. This attack failed, but the surrounding provinces also rose up in revolt. In particular, rebels in Cavite led by Emilio Aguinaldo won early victories. A power struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacio's execution in 1897, with command shifting to Aguinaldo who led his own revolutionary government. That year, a truce was officially reached with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo was exiled to Hong Kong, though hostilities between rebels and the Spanish government never actually ceased.[27][28] In 1898, with the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Aguinaldo unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines and resumed hostilities against the Spaniards. By June, the rebels had conquered nearly all Spanish-held ground within the Philippines with the exception of Manila. Aguinaldo thus declared independence from Spain and the First Philippine Republic was established. However, neither Spain nor the United States recognized Philippine independence. Spanish rule in the islands only officially ended with the 1898 Treaty of Paris, wherein Spain ceded the Philippines and other territories to the United States. The Philippine–American War broke out shortly afterward.[28]1897: The Lattimer massacre. The violent deaths of 19 unarmed striking immigrant anthracitecoal miners at the Lattimer mine near Hazleton, Pennsylvania, on September 10, 1897.[29][30] The miners, mostly of Polish, Slovak, and Lithuanian ethnicity, were shot and killed by a Luzerne County sheriff's posse. Scores more workers were wounded.[31] The Lattimer massacre was a turning point in the history of the United Mine Workers (UMW).[32]1898: The Bava-Beccaris massacre in Milan, Kingdom of Italy. On May 5, 1898, workers organized a strike to demonstrate against the government of Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì, Prime Minister of Italy, holding it responsible for the general increase of prices and for the famine that was affecting the country. The first blood was shed that day at Pavia, when the son of the mayor of Milan was killed while attempting to halt the troops marching against the crowd. After a protest in Milan the following day, the government declared a state of siege in the city. Infantry, cavalry and artillery were brought into the city and General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccarisordered his troops to fire on demonstrators. According to the government, there were 118 dead and 450 wounded. The opposition claimed 400 dead and more than 2,000 injured people. Filippo Turati, one of the founder of the Italian Socialist Party, was arrested and accused of inspiring the riots.[33][34]1898: The Battle of Sugar Point takes place in the northeast shore of Leech Lake, Minnesota. "Old Bug" (Bugonaygeshig), a leading member of the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians in Bear Island had been arrested in September, 1898. A reported number of 22 Pillagers helped him escape. Arrest warrants were issued for all Pillagers involved in the incident. On October 5, 1898, about 80 men serving or attached to the 3d US Infantry Regiment arrived on Bear Island to perform the arrests. Finding it abandoned, they proceeded to Sugar Point. There, a force of 19 Pillagers armed with Winchester rifle was observing the soldiers from a forested area. When a soldier fired his weapon, allegedly a new recruit who had done so accidentally, the Pillagers returned fire. Major Melville Wilkinson, the commanding officer, was shot three times and killed. By the end of the conflict, seven soldiers had been killed (including Wilkinson), another 16 wounded. There were no casualties among the 19 Natives. Peaceful relations were soon re-established but this uprising was among the last Native American victories in the American Indian Wars. It is known as "the last Indian Uprising in the United States".[35][36][37]1893: The Leper War on Kaua'i in the island of Kauai. The Provisional Government of Hawaiiunder Sanford B. Dole passes a law which would forcibly relocate lepers to the Leprosy Colony ofKalawao on the Kalaupapa peninsula. When Kaluaikoolau, a leper, resisted arrest by a deputy sheriff and killed the man, Dole reacted by sending armed militia against the lepers of Kalalau Valley. Kaluaikoolau reportedly foiled or killed some of his pursuers. But the conflict ended with the evacuation of the area in July, 1893. The main source for the event is a 1906 publication by Kahikina Kelekona (John Sheldon), preserving the story as told by Piilani, Kaluaikoolau's widow.[17][18]
The Songhyeon-dong site has changed hands over time, however, there is one thing that has remained the same: It’s always been at the center of power.During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), a large part of it belonged to Yun Deok-yeong (1873-1940) and Yun Taek-yeong (1866-1935), a pair of wealthy, powerful brothers. In addition, many organizations related to the royal court of Joseon were located there. They include the home of Eombi (1854-1911), the second wife of King Gojong (1852-1919); Gamgodang, where Queen Myeongseong (1851-1895) lived briefly; Saganwon, or the Office of Special Counselors; and Jongchinbu, the Office of the Royal Genealogy.After Joseon collapsed to Japanese encroachment and the 35-year Japanese colonization began, the land was used for employee residences of the Chosen Shokusan Bank. After Japan was defeated in World War II, the U.S. government became the owner of the land and built residences for employees of the U.S. Embassy in Seoul.As the United States sought to move the residences elsewhere, Samsung Life Insurance purchased the land from the U.S. government for 140 billion won ($131.8 million) in 2000. Samsung also hoped to build cultural facilities, but the site’s proximity to schools made it drop the plan. In 2008, Korean Air bought the land for 290 billion won.Park Jun-beom, who took part in the archaeological discovery of the site as a researcher with the Hangang Institute of Cultural Heritage in 2009, said, “We found 23 building foundations of the late Joseon and seven building foundations of Japanese colonization.” He added that the relics recovered included ceramics, roof tiles, tools, metalware and coins from the 19th and 20th centuries. Critics of Korean Air’s plan say that in addition to violating the hotel-proximity law, the land is just too valuable to be used as a site for a hotel.During the excavation, 23 building foundations from the late Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) and seven building foundations from Japanese colonization, as seen on the far left, were found. Also, many relics were recovered, including ceramics, on right, roof tiles, tools, metalware and coins from the 19th and 20th centuries. Provided by Hangang Institute of Cultural Heritage
Quoting a Writer;“The site is dotted with important relics of Korean history. Building a hotel here is ignoring the country’s precious history,” said Hong Seong-tae, professor of cultural content at Sangji University. “Songhyeon-dong is located right next to Gyeongbok Palace and at the southwestern entrance of Bukchon. … Depending on how the site is developed, Seoul’s [landscape] could advance or dilapidate.”(Bukchon has a cluster of centuries-old hanok, or traditional Korean houses, and refers to 11 administrative areas such as Gahoe-dong, Je-dong and Gye-dong.)Korean Air’s plansIt’s true that newspaper headlines such as “Chaebol hotel right next to Gyeongbok Palace” have been evoking frowns.However, Korean Air has something to say about this. “The hotel is just a little part of our plan for a ‘culture landmark,’?” one of the company’s representatives said. “Also, the hotel is a small one, with just 150 rooms.” Most of the five-star hotels in downtown Seoul have somewhere between 200 and 400 rooms.Korean Air further explained in a statement that its “goal is to make a culture landmark where cultural and commercial entities like a performance hall, a hotel, a gallery and a shopping center co-exist, and which can represent Korea.“The multilateral culture complex in Songhyeon-dong will help alleviate the shortage of upscale accommodations in Seoul, in line with the government’s tourism promotion policy. … It will also contribute to the preservation of our cultural heritage nearby, and be in harmony with the scenery of Bukchon.”It’s true that the lack of accommodations for tourists in Seoul has been pointed out many times. There are reportedly 27,000 rooms in Seoul, which is far lower than other cities like New York, Paris and Hong Kong. The number of tourists coming to Korea broke the 10 million mark last year.However, many experts say what Korea needs is business hotels with reasonable rates, not necessarily seven-star hotels as Korean Air’s envisioned hotel is known to be. Also, if the hotel is as small as Korean Air alleges, the effect that one hotel will have on easing the shortage will be limited.Against this backdrop, not just historians but also architects have joined in opposing Korean Air’s plan.Kim Won, the head of Kwangjang, an architect firm, suggested that Korean Air should trade with Jongno District Office for its current site, then Korean Air could build the culture complex there. Then, Jongno District Office, which has been planning to rebuild its office, would have a new property to build on and could leave a large part of it as an open space for the public - perhaps by installing a sculpture park.In fact, Kim Young-jong, the mayor of Jongno District Office and a former architect, first made the offer to trade the sites in 2010. “Just look at the photograph of the Songhyeon-dong site,” Kim Won of Kwangjang said. “I just cannot imagine building a hotel in this amazing area. It’s only right that a public facility be built here. … Jeongdok Public Library, Artsonje Center and the National Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art’s new Seoul branch already run a shared program. Jongno District Office can also join in.”When asked about this proposal, a Korean Air representative said it’s not simply a matter of trading land.Political matterIn terms of fighting against the School Health Act, things haven’t been looking good for Korean Air for the past three years.After the Jungbu District Office of Education rejected Korean Air’s plan for its “cultural landmark” near the three schools, the air carrier took the matter to the courts.In April 2010, Korean Air filed a lawsuit against the Jungbu District Office of Education and lost; in December of that year, it appealed and lost again; in February 2012, it appealed to a higher court and lost once again.And in August 2012, Korean Air filed a complaint with the Constitutional Court, saying the law is unfair and infringes on professional freedom by categorizing top-notch tourist hotels along with inns, motels and other hotels.Around that time, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism extended a helping hand, proposing a revision to the School Health Act so that it would allow tourist hotels without entertainment facilities to be built near schools.That proposed revision has been sitting on the National Assembly, neglected for more than year.However, there was a game changer in August: Cho Yang-ho got a chance to meet President Park, who was inaugurated in February. In her first meeting with top conglomerate chiefs, Cho reportedly asked Park to allow the building of the culture landmark in Songhyeon-dong.Since then, there have been signs that Park supports Korean Air’s plan.The following month, Park ordered policy makers to seek ways to allow construction of certain hotels in school zones at a meeting promoting trade and investment. And in November, Park promoted the benefits of allowing certain hotels establish themselves in school zones in her speech at the National Assembly. “If this revision gets passed, some 2 trillion won of investment and 47,000 jobs will be created,” she said on Nov. 18.That same day, even the Education Ministry jumped on the bandwagon, announcing that it will allow businesses that want to build hotels within 200 meters of schools explain their business ideas to education authorities starting next year. Baek Yeong-hyeon, the principal of the Duksung Girls’ Middle School, told Korean media, “We cannot stop businesses from explaining their business ideas, but if these lead to approvals, that’s a different story,” adding that one hotel could greatly damage the educational atmosphere.While the government argues that the revision is not just for the hotel envisioned by Korean Air, but also concerns more than 43 others, Ha Byeong-su, the spokesman for the Korean Teachers and Education Workers’ Union, told a Korean newspaper that “the president’s words and a company’s [ambition] have prodded the Education Ministry to allow harmful facilities to encroach on school zones.”In addition, a revision to the School Health Act was among the 15 bills that the Blue House urged the National Assembly to pass as early as possible on Monday.Meanwhile, Clark from the United States says, “I do not have the knowledge to comment on the legality of building a hotel close to schools. … However, Anguk-dong already is a very crowded area. Any decision about the future use of Songhyeon-dong has to consider that very seriously.“I think the most important consideration is the preservation of the panoramic view of the mountains behind Songhyeon-dong. The history of Songhyeon-dong also should be part of its future. “If these considerations can be successfully incorporated into a hotel, great, but if not, then I favor the conversion of Songhyeon-dong into a noncommercial, park-like space in which the landscape and the history of this storied locale can be appreciated.”BY KIM HYUNG-EUN
Re:Emperor Gojong (1852-1919)
King Gojong assumed the title of Emperor in order to assert Korea's ... The second son, Cheok became Emperor Sunjong of Korea, the last monarch of Korea. ... called "King Lee of Korea",
The Korean Peninsula was inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic about 400,000- 700,000 years ago.
10.1.14
world in 1800s to 1900s; Korean Monarch King Josong's $200Million missing from German-Chinese bank deposits from 1852-1919; Korean ancestry of Siberia-Evenk-Nanai-Sakhalin Is.-Okinawa Is.-Manchu-Han Ancestors' territories during Qing Dynasty taken and shared among France-UK-Russia-Kobe Jews from USA/Jap.
