Confucianism
A Brief Summary of Confucius and His Teachings
byKathy ShinnConfucianism is the complex system of moral, social, political, and religious teaching built up by Confucius and the ancient Chinese traditions. Confucianism goal is making not only the man virtuous, but also making him the man of learning and of good manners. The perfect man must combine the qualities of a saint, scholar, and gentleman. Confucianism is a religion whose worship is centered in offerings to the dead. The notion of duty is extended beyond the boundaries of morals and embraces the details of daily life.The main character responsible for this religion was K�ung-tze, or K�ung-fu-tze, who�s name was latinized by the early Jesuit missionaries into "Confucius". Confucius was born in 551 B.C., in the state of Lu. His parents, belonged to the upper class. From early childhood he showed a great aptitude for study. He made so much progress that at the age of twenty-two he opened a school. His ability and faithful service got him a promotion to the office of minister of justice. Under his administration, the State gained a prosperity and moral order that it had never seen before. But the rival states of Lu preferred common pleasures instead of focusing on the preservation of good government. Confucius tried to bring his state back to the path of duty, but his efforts were in vain. He then resigned his position and left the state. For thirteen years, accompanied by faithful followers, he went from one state to another, seeking a ruler who would listen to his teachings. More than once he came across the risk of being killed by his enemies, but his confidence in his mission kept him going. Finally, he returned to Lu, where he spent the last five years of his life encouraging others to study and practice virtue. He died in the year 478 B.C., at the age of seventy-fourth. His life almost exactly coincided with the Buddha, who died two years earlier at the age of eighty.Confucius had a noble and commanding personality. Examples of this is illustrated in his moral teachings and by the high-minded men that he trained to continue his life-work. In their admiration of him, they declared him the greatest of men, the sage without flaw, the perfect man. He didn�t make any pretension to have virtue and wisdom. He was aware of his shortcomings, and he made no attempt to keep that concealed. Confucius�s love of virtue and wisdom is described in Analects as one "who in the eager pursuit of knowledge, forgot his food, and in the joy of attaining to it forgot his sorrow". Whatever traditional records of the past, whether history, lyric poems, or rites and ceremonies which promoted virtue, he sought out and taught to his disciples. He was a man of an affectionate nature, sympathetic, and most considerate towards others. He loved his disciples dearly, and won in turn their undying devotion.Confucianism embraces not only the teachings of Confucius, but also the traditional customs and rites of the past. The texts are divided into two categories, known as the "King" (Classics), and the "Shuh" (Books). The texts of the King are commonly counted as five, but sometimes are counted as six. The first of these is the "Shao-king" (Book of History). It�s a religious and moral book, tracing the series of great events in history. It also teaches the lesson that the Heaven-god gives prosperity only to the virtuous ruler who has the welfare of the people at heart.The second King is the "She-king" (Book of Songs), often called the "Odes". It consists of 305 short lyric poems. The third King is the "Y-king" (Book of Changes), It�s an instruction on the art of divining with the stalks of a native plant, which after being thrown give different indications as they conform to one or another of the sixty-four hexagrams made up of three broken and three unbroken lines. Short explanations accompany them. The fourth King is the "Li-ki" (Book of Rites). It�s a compilation from a huge number of documents, most of which date from the earlier part of the Chow dynasty. It gives rules of conduct down to the minute details for religious acts of worship, court functions, social and family relations, dress�in short, for every aspect of human action. It remains the authoritative guide of correct conduct for every Chinese person even today. In the "Li-ki" there are many of Confucius�s sayings and two long treatises composed by disciples. One of these is the treatise known as the "Chung-yung" (Doctrine of the Mean). It�s one of the most valuable treatises. It consists of a collection of sayings of Confucius characterizing the perfect man. The other treatise, is the "Ta-hio" (Great Learning). It gives descriptions of the virtuous ruler by the disciple Tsang-tze. The fifth King is the short historical treatise known as the "Ch�un-ts�ew" (Spring and Autumn), written by the hand of Confucius himself. It consists of a series of records about the state of Lu for the years 722-484 B.C. In addition to these five Kings belongs a sixth, the "Hiao-king" (Book of Filial Piety). The Chinese attribute its composition to Confucius, but in the opinion of critical scholars, it is the product of his disciple, Tsang-tze.The religion of ancient China which Confucius stuck closely to was a form of nature-worship. While numerous spirits associated with natural phenomena were recognized�spirits of mountains and rivers, of land and grain, of the four quarters of the heavens, the sun, moon, and stars�they were all inferior to the supreme Heaven-god, T�ien (Heaven) also called Ti (Lord), or Shang-ti (Supreme Lord).All other spirits were his ministers, acting in obedience to his will. T�ien was the upholder of the moral law, exercising a reign over all men. Nothing could escape his all-seeing eye. His punishment for evil deeds took the form either of disasters and early death, or of misfortune given to the children of the evil-doer. In passages of the "Shao-" and "She-king," this belief is a motive to promote right conduct. Confucius himself is recorded saying, "he who offends against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray". Another motive to the practice of virtue was the belief that the souls of the departed relatives were largely dependent for their happiness on the conduct of their living descendants. It was taught that children owed it to their dead parents to contribute to their glory and happiness by living lives of virtue. Confucius didn�t disregard motives to right conduct, but instead stressed the love of virtue for its own sake.The principles of morality and their application to life were embodied in the sacred texts, which in turn represented the teachings of the great sages to instruct mankind. These teachings were not inspired, or revealed, yet they were infallible. The sages were born with wisdom from Heaven to enlighten the children of men. It was a wisdom that was fortunate, rather than supernatural. The notion of Divine revelation isn�t present in Chinese texts. To follow the path of duty as listed in the rules of conduct was within the reach of all men, provided that their nature was not spoiled by bad influences. Confucius held the traditional view that all men are born good. Original sin isn�t in his teachings. He failed to recognize the existence of bad tendencies. In his view, what spoiled men was bad environment, evil example and a yielding to evil appetites that everyone could and ought to control. Moral downfall caused by suggestions of evil spirits had no place in Confucius�s system.In Confucianism the pursuit of virtue is natural and fortunate. But in this pursuit of moral perfection Confucius sought to give others the enthusiastic love of virtue that he felt himself. To make oneself as good as possible was the main business of life. Everything that was conducive to the practice of goodness was to be eagerly sought and made use of. Knowledge was held as an indispensable treasure. The knowledge which he taught to be pursued was not purely scientific learning, but was the study of the sacred texts and the rules of virtue and propriety. Another factor which he stressed was the influence of good example. The heroes and sages of the past and sayings he sought to promote. He did this by insisting on the study of the ancient classics. Many of his recorded sayings are eulogies of these men of virtue. Confucius taught his followers the importance of always welcoming the correction of one�s faults. Also, the daily examination of conscience was enforced. To further aid to the formation of a virtuous character, he valued a certain amount of self-discipline. He recognized the danger, especially in the young, of falling into bad habits, so he insisted on eliminating the urge for unnecessary comforts.As a foundation for the life of perfect goodness, Confucius insisted mainly on the four virtues of sincerity, benevolence, filial piety, and propriety. Sincerity was a cardinal virtue. It meant more than a mere social relation. Sincerity also meant to be truthful and straightforward in speech, faithful to one�s promises and to be conscientious in the discharge of one�s duties to others. The sincere man in Confucius�s eyes was the man whose conduct was based on the love of virtue, and who sought to observe the rules of right conduct in his heart as well as in outward actions. Showing a kindly regard for the welfare of others and in a readiness to help them in times of need, was also a fundamental element in Confucius�s teaching. These things were viewed as the traits of the good man. In the sayings of Confucius, he states many things that can be compared to the Golden Rule. For example, when a disciple asked him for a guiding principle for all conduct, Confucius answered: "Is not mutual goodwill such a principle? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others". This is almost exactly like the form of the Golden Rule found in Christianity. The third fundamental virtue in the Confucian system is filial piety. In the "Hiao-king", Confucius is recorded as saying: "Filial piety is the root of all virtue."�"Of all the actions of man there are none greater than those of filial piety." To the Chinese, filial piety prompts sons to love and respect their parents, contribute to their comfort and bring happiness and honor to their name by honorable success in life. Filial piety included the obligation of sons to live after marriage under the same roof with the father and to give him obedience as long as he lived. The will of the parents was declared to be supreme even to the extent that if the son�s wife failed to please them he was obliged to divorce her. If a dutiful son found himself compelled to scold a wayward father he was taught to give the correction with the utmost meekness. The father does not forfeit his right to filial respect, no matter how great his wickedness. Another virtue of primary importance in the Confucian system is "propriety". It embraces the whole aspect of human conduct teaching men to do the right thing. In the rules, ceremony, customs and usages are listed by which Chinese etiquette is regulated. They were distinguished even in Confucius�s day by the three hundred greater, and the three thousand lesser rules of ceremony, all of which had to be carefully learned as a guide to right conduct. The conventional usages as well as the rules of moral conduct brought with them the sense of obligation resting primarily on the authority of the sage-kings and on the will of Heaven. To neglect or deviate from them was equivalent to committing a sin.In the "Li-ki", there are 6 main ceremonial observances. Capping, marriage, mourning rites, sacrifices, feasts, and interviews. I will briefly discuss the first four. These observances have lasted with little change to the present day. Capping was a joyous ceremony where the son was honored on reaching his 20th birthday. In the presence of relatives and invited guests, the father gave his son a special name and a square cornered cap as distinguishing mark of his manhood. This ceremony was included an enormous feast. The marriage ceremony was of great importance as well. To marry and have a male child was an important duty on the part of every son. This was necessary to keep up the patriarchal system and to provide for ancestral worship in later years. The rule laid down in the "Li-ki" was that a young man should marry at the age of thirty and a young woman at twenty. The proposal and acceptance pertained not to the couple directly, but to their parents.The preliminary arrangements were made by a go between after it was determined that the proposed marriage was proper. The couple could not be of the same surname or related within the fifth degree of kindred. On the day of the wedding the young groom in his best attire came to the house of the bride and led her out to his carriage, which she rode to his father�s home. There he received her, surrounded by the joyous guests. Cups were made by cutting a melon in half and filled with sweet spirits and handed to the bride and groom. By taking a sip from each, they signified that they were united in wedlock. The bride then became a member of the family of her parents-in-law. Monogamy was encouraged as the ideal condition, but secondary wives known as concubines were not forbidden. The mourning rites were also of great importance. Their explanation takes up the biggest part of the "Li-ki". The mourning rites for the father were the most impressive of all. For the first three days, the son, clad in sackcloth of coarse white hemp, fasted, and leaped, and wailed. After the burial, the son had to wear the mourning sackcloth for twenty-seven months, starving himself and living in a crude hut made for the funeral near the grave. In Analects, Confucius condemned the suggestion that the period of the mourning rites be shortened to one year. Another class of rites of supreme importance was the sacrifices. They are repeatedly mentioned in the Confucian texts where instructions are given for their proper celebration. The sacrifice was to be nothing more than a food-offering expressing the homage of the worshippers, a solemn feast to do honor to the spirit guests, who are invited and are thought to enjoy the entertainment. Meat and drink of great variety are provided. There is also vocal and instrumental music, and dancing. The ministers in these ceremonies are not priests, but heads of families, the feudal lords, and above all, the king. There is no priesthood in Confucianism. The worship of the people at large is confined to the worship of ancestors. In the days of Confucius, there was in every family home, a chamber or closet called the ancestral shrine where wooden tablets were kept and inscribed with the names of deceased parents, grandparents, and more remote ancestors. At certain times, offerings of fruit, wine, and cooked meats were set before these tablets which the ancestral spirits were to make their temporary resting-place. There was also a public honoring that took place by each local clan of the common ancestors twice a year. This was an elaborate banquet with music and dances where the dead ancestors were summoned and in which they participated along with the living members of the clan. More elaborate and magnificent still were the great feasts given by the king to his ghostly ancestors. This feasting of the dead by families and clans was restricted to those united with the living by relationship. There were, however, a few public people whose memory was revered by all the people and whom offerings of food were made. Confucius himself came be to honored after death, being regarded as the greatest of public benefactors. Even today in China this religious worship of Confucius is faithfully maintained.Confucianism has had a profound affect on the people of China as well as the people of other nations. Confucian beliefs and values have served many as a guide to moral living. The teachings of Confucius have not only survived hundreds of years, but have thrived as a system of virtue as well. It serves it�s followers as a foundation for the life of perfect goodness. Many of his concepts, such as: ren, li, hsiao and the 5 relationships hold true even today. With all of this in mind, it can truly be said that Confucianism is a remarkable religion. SourcesAiken, Charles F. The Catholic Encyclopedia. The Encyclopedia Press, Inc. 1996 Heinz, Carolyn B. Asia, A New Introduction. Waveland Press. 1997
Confucius was born about 551 BC. with the family name K'ung. The respect he gained for his teachings led to his being referred to as Grand Master K'ung � K'ung Fu-tzu. The Western version of his name comes from this. He said that at fifteen he bent his mind to learning, and he continued to express a deep admiration for learning throughout his life. Confucius married at 19, his son being born a year later. Subsequently he had two daughters, one of whom died when she was quite young. In his twenty-second year, Confucius started his career as a public teacher, and his house became a gathering place for young people who wished to learn from the lessons of the past. He was concerned with opening up education to all, with an emphasis on character building rather than vocational training. In his fifties he became a magistrate and a minister of justice. At 56 he sought to spread his doctrines by traveling extensively with some of his students. After 13 years he returned somewhat disappointed to his own state, where he is believed to have written down his philosophy and compiled the Chinese Classics. He died in 479 BC. Confucius lived in times when there was constant warfare between neigh�boring states and local warlords had little concern for the high moral principles enunciated by an itinerant teacher. While his goal was to bring peace and order to states his words had little effect during his lifetime. His ideas subsequently became the foundation for most of the concern for humanity found in subsequent Chinese philosophy. Unfortunately, his name has often been used as a cloak for despotic rule, by a false analogy between a dictator and the head of a family. Some primary aspects of Confucius's thought are to be found in The Great Learning and in The Doctrine of the Mean (referred to here as the Doctrine of Equilibrium and Harmony). Parts of these are given here, followed by extracts from The Analects, a large collection of sayings of and about Confucius. Top
The Doctrine of Equilibrium and Harmony
1 The heavens have conferred a human nature on mankind alone. Acting according to our humanity provides the true path through life. Wisdom from the past helps us learn how to follow this path. It is wrong to leave this path for an instant. A path which you are free to leave is not the true path. On this account, the superior man is cautious and careful with respect to where he focuses his attention and how he is regarded; he is anxious to give his mind to only what is worth listening to and what is worth saying. Secret thoughts and minute expressions of concealed feelings may be transparently obvious. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself even when alone. When there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in a state of equilibrium. When those feelings are stirred and act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called a state of harmony. Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all acts of humanity; harmony is the universal path that guides them. Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout the heavens and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish. Top
The Great Learning
2 The path for learning greatness is to illuminate the goodness in man, to bring out what is best in people, and to achieve the highest excellence. Once the true point of departure on this path is found, thought becomes clear. A calm imperturbability yields the tranquility needed for careful deliberation. That deliberation will achieve the desired goal. 3 Things have their roots and their branches. Affairs have their ends and their beginnings. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in The Great Learning. 4 The ancients wishing to exhibit goodness throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own states. To order well their own states, they first brought order into their families. To bring order into their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. To rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of know�ledge lay in the investigation of things. The investigation of things rounded out knowledge. Their knowledge being rounded out, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, order was brought into their families. Their families being in order, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy. 5 From the supreme ruler down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything else. When the root is neglected, what springs from it cannot be well ordered. What is of great importance cannot be slightly cared for, nor can what is of slight importance be greatly cared for. Top
The Analects
Confucius Himself
6 When the disciple Tsze-lu asked to hear his wishes, Confucius replied, �They are, in regard to the aged, to give them rest; in regard to friends, to show them sincerity; in regard to the young, to treat them tenderly.� 7 When Tsze-kung asked for one word that may serve as a rule of practice for all one�s life. Confucius asked, �Is not reciprocity such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.� 8 Confucius remarked to Tsze-yu, �My doctrine is that of an all-pervading unity.� When Confucius went out, the other disciples asked what these words meant. Tsze-yu replied, �The doctrine of our master is to be true to the principles of our natures and to exercise them benevolently towards others� this and nothing more.� 9 His disciples listed four things that their Master taught�letters, ethics, devotion of soul, and truthfulness. They said he was entirely free of four things�foregone conclusions, arbitrary predetermination, obstinacy, and egoism. 10 Frequent themes for Confucius were the Chinese Odes, history, and maintaining rules of propriety. He said, �It is by the Odes that the mind is aroused. It is by the Rules of Propriety that the character is established. And it is from Music that the finish is received.� 11 Confucius said �Without knowing the force of words, it is impossible to know men.� He remarked that three hundred pieces in the Book of Odes could be summed up in one sentence��Have no twisted or depraved thoughts.� Of language itself , he said, �It is simply required that it convey the meaning.� 12 His disciples recall that Confucius did not talk about extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, or spiritual beings. When Tsze-lu asked about serving the spirits of the dead Confucius responded, �While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits?� Tsze-lu went on, �May I ask about death?� He received the answer, �While you do not know life, how can you know about death?� Confucius remarked, �The study of strange doctrines is injurious indeed!� 13 The things in reference to which Confucius exercised the greatest caution were�fasting, sickness and war. 14 Tsze-lu asked, �If you had the conduct of the armies of a great State, whom would you have to act with you?� Confucius replied, �I would not have him to act with me who will unarmed attack a tiger, or cross a river without a boat, dying without any regret. My associate must be the man who proceeds to action full of thoughtfulness, who is fond of carefully laying out his plans, and then carries them into execution.� 15 The stable was burned down when Confucius was at court; on his return he asked, �Has any man been hurt?� He did not ask about the horses. 16 When any of his friends died, if he had no relations who could be depended on for the necessary offices, he would say, �I will bury him.� When he saw any one in a mourning dress, his countenance would become grave. When Confucius was eating by the side of a mourner, he never ate to the full. He did not sing on the same day in which he had been weeping. 17 Confucius said of Kung-ye Chang that he could become married: although he was put in bonds, he had not been guilty of any crime. Accordingly, he gave him his own daughter to wife. 18 Confucius valued filial piety. He suggested, �In serving his parents, a son may remonstrate with them, but gently; when he sees that they do not incline to follow his advice, he shows an increased degree of reverence, but does not abandon his purpose; and should they punish him, he does not allow himself to murmur.� 19 He said, �A youth is to be regarded with respect. How do we know that his future will not be equal to our present? If he reach the age of forty or fifty and has not made himself heard of, then indeed he will not be worth being regarded with respect.� 20 The Music-master, Mien, having called upon him, when they came to the steps, Confucius said, �Here are the steps.� When they came to the mat for the guest to sit on, he said, �Here is the mat.� When all were seated, he told him, �So and so is here; so and so is there.� The Music-master, Mien, having gone out, Tsze-chang asked saying, �Is it the rule to tell those things to the Music-master?� Confucius replied, �Yes. This is certainly the rule for those who lead the blind.� 21 At one time Confucius was depressed and lamented, �My doctrines make no way. I will get upon a raft, and float about on the sea. He that will accompany me will be Yu, I dare say�. Yu hearing this was glad. Upon which Confucius observed tartly, �Yu is fonder of daring than I am. He does not exercise his judgment upon such matters.� 22 The Master said, �In letters I am perhaps equal to other men, but the character of the superior man, carrying out in his conduct what he professes, is what I have not yet attained to.� 23 �I will not be afflicted at men's not knowing me; I will be afflicted that I do not know men.� 24 Confucius said, �The sage and the man of perfect virtue�how dare I rank myself with them? It may simply be said of me, that I strive to become such without satiety, and teach others without weariness.� Kung-hsi Hwa said, �That is just what we disciples cannot imitate in you.� 25 A man of the village of Ta-hsiang scoffed, �Great indeed is the philosopher K'ung! His learning is extensive, and yet he does not render his name famous by any particular thing.� Hearing the gibe, Confucius asked his disciples, �What must I do to please this man? Shall I go in for archery contests? Shall I become a charioteer? That's it, I will take up chariot racing!� Top
Learning
26 Confucius summed up the importance of knowledge this way, �Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men. Those who learn and readily gain possession of knowledge are the next. Those who are dull and stupid, and yet manage to learn are another class next to these. As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not learn�they are the lowest of the people. �But�, he warned, �Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.� 27 To Yu he said, �Lack of love of learning is at the heart of six sources of confusion. �There is the love of being benevolent without the love of learning�the confusion here leads to a foolish simplicity. There is the love of knowing without the love of learning�the confusion here leads to dissipation of mind. There is the love of being sincere without the love of learning�the confusion here leads to an injurious disregard of consequences. There is the love of straight�forwardness without the love of learning�the confusion here leads to rudeness. There is the love of boldness without the love of learning�the confusion here leads to insubordination. There is the love of firmness without the love of learning�the confusion here leads to extravagant conduct.� 28 Chi K'ang asked which of the disciples loved to learn. Confucius replied to him, �There was Tsze-yuan. He loved to learn. Unfortunately his appointed time was short, and he died. Now there is no one who loves to learn, as he did.� When Tsze-yuan died, Confucius bewailed him exceedingly, and the disciples who were with him said, �Master, isn't your grief excessive? �Is it excessive?� he asked. �If I am not to mourn bitterly for this man, for whom should I mourn?� 29 The duke of Sheh asked Tsze-lu about Con�fucius, and Tsze-lu did not answer him. Confucius asked, �Why did you not say to him�He is simply a man, who in his eager pursuit of knowledge forgets his food, who in the joy of its attainment forgets his sorrows, and who does not perceive that old age is coming on?� 30 �When I walk along with two others, they may serve me as my teachers. I will select their good qualities and follow them, know their bad qualities and avoid them.� 31 �When we see men of worth, we should think of equaling them; when we see men of a contrary character, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves.� 32 He said, �There may be those who act without knowing why. I do not do so. Hearing much, selecting what is good and following it; seeing much and keeping it in memory�this is the style of knowledge I prefer.� 33 Tsai Yu being asleep during the day time, Confucius observed, �Rotten wood cannot be carved; a wall of dirty earth will not receive the trowel. This Yu! �what is the use of my reproving him? At first, my way with men was to hear their words and give them credit for their conduct. Now my way is to hear their words and look at their conduct. It is from Yu that I have learned to make this change.� 34 �I do not open up the truth to one who is not eager to get knowledge, nor help out any one who is not anxious to explain himself. When I have presented one corner of a subject to any one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my lesson.� 35 �When a man is not in the habit of saying, �What shall I think of this? What shall I think of this?� I can indeed do nothing with him!� Top
The Superior Man
36 Tsze-lu asked what constituted the superior man. Confucius answered, �The cultivation of himself in reverential careful�ness.� �And is this all?� �He cultivates himself so as to give rest to others.� �And is this all?� �He cultivates himself so as to give rest to all the people.� 37 Confucius confessed, �The way of the superior man is threefold, but I am not equal to it. Virtuous, he is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from perplexities; bold, he is free from fear.� 38 Tsze-kung also asked what constituted the superior man. Confucius replied, �He acts before he speaks, and afterwards speaks according to his actions.� 39 �The superior man has nine things which are subjects with him of thoughtful consideration: In regard to the use of his eyes, he is anxious to see clearly. In regard to the use of his ears, he is anxious to hear distinctly. In regard to his countenance, he is anxious that it should be benign. In regard to his demeanor, he is anxious that it should be respectful. In regard to his speech, he is anxious that it should be sincere. In regard to his way of doing business, he is anxious that it should be reverently careful. In regard to what he doubts about, he is anxious to question others. When he is angry, he thinks of the difficulties his anger may involve him in. When he sees gain to be got, he thinks of righteousness.� 40 �The superior man wishes to be slow in his speech and earnest in his conduct. He is modest in his speech, but exceeds in his actions. In every action he considers righteousness to be essential. He performs it according to the rules of propriety. He executes it with humility. He completes it with sincerity. This is indeed the way of a superior man.� 41 �The superior man is distressed by his want of ability. He is not distressed by men's not knowing him. He is correctly firm, and not firm merely.� 42 �He does not promote a man simply on account of his words, nor does he put aside good words because of the man.� 43 �He who does not anticipate attempts to deceive him, nor think beforehand of his not being believed, and yet apprehends these things readily when they occur � Is he not a man of superior worth?� 44 �There are three things which the superior man guards against. In youth, when the physical powers are not yet settled, he guards against lust. When he is strong, and the physical powers are full of vigor, he guards against quarrelsomeness. When he is old, and the animal powers are decayed, he guards against covetousness.� 45 �In dealing with people, the superior man does not set his mind either for anything, or against anything; what is right he will follow.� 46 When he was in Chan, their provisions were exhausted, and his followers became so ill that they were unable to rise. Tsze-lu, with evident dissatisfaction, said to Confucius, �Has the superior man likewise to endure in this way?� The Master said, �The superior man may indeed have to endure want, but the mean man, when he is in want, gives way to unbridled license.� Top
Virtue
47 Tsze-chang asked Confucius the source of perfect virtue. Confucius said, �To be able to practice five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue: gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnest�ness, and kindness. If you are grave, you will not be treated with disrespect. If you are generous, you will win all. If you are sincere, people will repose trust in you. If you are earnest, you will accomplish much. If you are kind, this will enable you to employ the services of others. The firm, the enduring, the simple, and the modest are near to virtue.� 48 When Tsze-ch'ih asked about perfect virtue Confucius replied, �In retirement, it is to be sedately grave; in the management of business, to be reverently attentive; in dealing with others, to be strictly sincere. Though a man go among rude, uncultivated tribes, these qualities may not be neglected.� 49 �The man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established him�self, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others. To be able to judge others as we would wish to be judged ourselves: this may be called the art of virtue.� 50 Tsze-kung asked, saying, �What do you say of a man who is loved by all the people of his neighborhood?� Confucius replied, �We may not for that reason alone accord him our approval.� �And what do you say of him who is hated by all the people of his neighborhood?� Confucius replied, �We may not for that reason conclude that he is bad. It is better than either of these cases that the good in the neighborhood love him, and the bad hate him.� Top
The Mean Man
51 �The superior man cannot be known in little matters; but he may be entrusted with great concerns. The small man may not be entrusted with great concerns but he may be known in little matters. �The superior man thinks of virtue; the small man thinks of comfort. The superior man thinks of the enactions of law; the small man thinks of favors that he may receive. �The mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the mean man is con�versant with gain. �The superior man seeks to perfect the admirable qualities of men, and does not seek to perfect their bad qualities. The mean man does the opposite of this. �What the superior man seeks, is in himself. What the mean man seeks, is in others.� 52 �Respectfulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes timidity; boldness, without the rules of propriety, becomes insubordination; straight-forwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness.� Top
Government
53 Tsze-chang asked Confucius, �In what way should a person in authority act in order that he may conduct government properly?� The Master replied, �Let him observe the five excellent things, and banish away the four bad things, then he may conduct government properly.� Tsze-chang said, �What are meant by the five excellent things? � Confucius replied: �When the person in authority is beneficent without great expenditure. �When he lays tasks on the people without their being discontented. �When he pursues what he desires without being covetous. �When he maintains a dignified ease without being proud. �When he is majestic without being fierce. �When the person in authority makes more beneficial to the people the things from which they naturally derive benefit�is not this being beneficent without great expenditure? �When he chooses the labors which are proper, and makes them labor on them, who will be discontented? �When his desires are set on benevolent government, and he secures it�who will accuse him of covetousness? �When dealing with many people or few, or with great things or small, he does not dare to indicate any disrespect, is not this to maintain a dignified ease without any pride? �When he dresses properly and looks dignified, so that he is looked at with awe, is not this to be majestic without being fierce? � Tsze-chang then asked, �What are meant by the four bad things?� �To put the people to death without having instructed them�this is called cruelty. �To suddenly require from them all of their work, without having given them warning�this is called oppression. �To issue orders as if without urgency at first but when the time comes to insist on them with severity�this is called injury. �And, generally, in giving pay or rewards to men, to do it in a mean way�this is called acting the part of a mere official.� 54 The disciple Tsze-lu said, �The duke of Wei [who had usurped the title of his father] has been waiting for you to assist in administering the government. What will you consider the first thing to be done?� The Master replied, �What is necessary is to call things by their right names.� �So, indeed!�said Tsze-lu [who had assisted the duke in administration for many years. �You are wide of the mark. Why must the names of things be corrected?� Confucius responded, �How uncultivated you are, Yu. A superior man, in regard to what he does not know, shows a cautious reserve. �If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. �When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and harmony will not flourish. When proprieties and harmony do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. �Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires, is that in his words there may be nothing incorrect.� 55 Confucius said, �To rule a country, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons.� 56 When Tsze-hsia, being governor of Chu-fu, asked about government, Confucius replied, �Do not be desirous to have things done quickly; do not look at small advantages. Desire to have things done quickly prevents their being done thoroughly. Looking at small advantages prevents great affairs from being accomplished.� 57 Tsze-kung asked about government. Confucius replied, �The requisites of government are that there be sufficiency of food, sufficiency of military equipment, and the confidence of the people in their ruler.� Tsze-kung said, �If it cannot be helped, and one of these must be dispensed with, which of the three should be foregone first?� �The military equipment,� said the Master. Tsze-kung again asked, �If it cannot be helped, and one of the remaining two must be dispensed with, which of them should be foregone?� The Master answered, �Part with the food. From ancient times, death has been the lot of all men; but if the people have no faith in their rulers, there is no justification for the state.� 58 Chi K'ang, the usuring head of the Chi clan, was distressed about the number of thieves in his state. When he inquired of Confucius how to do away with them, Confucius replied, �If you, sir, were not covetous, they would not steal even if you should reward them to do so.� 59 �To govern means to rectify. If you lead on the people with correctness, who will dare not to be correct?� 60 Chi K'ang asked �What do you say to killing the unprincipled for the good of the principled?� Confucius replied �Sir, in carrying on your government, why should you use killing at all? Let your evinced desires be for what is good, and the people will be good. The relation between superiors and inferiors is like that between the wind and the grass. The grass must bend when the wind blows across it.� 61 Tsze-kung asked, �What qualities must a man possess to entitle him to be called a government official?� Confucius replied, �He who in his conduct of himself maintains a sense of shame, and when sent to any quarter will not disgrace his leader's commission, deserves to be called an official.� Tsze-kung pursued, �I venture to ask who may be placed in the next lower rank?� He was told, �He whom the circle of his relatives pronounce to be filial and whom his fellow-villagers and neighbors pronounce to be fraternal.� The disciple continued, �I venture to ask about the class still next in order.� Confucius replied, �They are determined to be sincere in what they say, and to carry out what they do. They are obstinate little men. Yet perhaps they may make the next class.� Tsze-kung finally inquired, �Of what sort are those of the present day, who engage in government?� Confucius replied, �Oh, they are so many misfits and bunglers�not worth being taken into account.� 62 The Master said, �To lead an uninstructed people to war is to throw them away.� Top Selection and adaptation Copyright � Rex Pay 2000 Confucius was born about 551 BC. with the family name K'ung.
