A peninsula of southern Russia, on the northern shore of the Black Sea. It was formerly known as Krim-Tartary, and in ancient times as Tauric Chersonese. As shown by inscriptions (see Bosporus) unearthed in various parts of the Crimea, organized Jewish communities existed there long before the destruction of the Temple. Jerome in his commentary on Obadiah (verse 20) reports, on the authority of his Jewish teacher Hananiah, that, according to a tradition prevalent among the Jews, the Assyrians and Babylonians conveyed their Jewish captives to the coasts of the Black Sea. As to the inscriptions and monuments found in the vicinity of Kertch and Yenikale see Harkavy in "Yevreiskiya Zapiski," published by A. Pumpyanski. The Crimean Jews were Greeks in language, customs, and social life, and enjoyed equal rights with their fellow citizens. But, while their neighbors influenced them, they also exercised a formative influence upon the religion of their neighbors; and the associations termed σεβόμενοι θεὸν ὕψιστον, that existed there, although not altogether Jewish, certainly showed traces of Jewish monotheistic influence ("Voskhod," 1901, No. 4; compare Schürer, "Die Juden im Bosporanischen Reiche," in "Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie," 1897, p. 204).Chazars.In 47 C.E. the Romans conquered the Crimea, but the period of their domination was brief; for about the middle of the first century the Alans seized the country. In the second century they were displaced by the Goths; the latter, in their turn, being dislodged by the Huns in the fourth century. Although there are no records concerning the fate of the Jews during this period, it may safely be assumed that the successive masters of the country did not recognize any difference between the Jews and other inhabitants. Theophanes (671) speaks of the Jews of Phanagoria (Harkavy, "Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Slawim," p. 129). At the beginning of the seventh century the Chazars, a Turkish tribe which occupied the northern shores of the Caspian, overran the plains of the Crimea and gave their name to the greater part of the peninsula. The Chazars being of a mild and tolerant disposition, the Jews under their domination enjoyed complete freedom. This attracted to the Crimea many Jews from neighboring countries, especially from the Byzantine empire during the reign of Leo III. the Isaurian (718), who persecuted them relentlessly. They soon exercised a great influence over the Chazars. As the latter adopted settled habits and began to feel the need of a religion, many of the better classes, including the Chaghan, embraced Judaism. Thus the Crimean Jews became practically the rulers of the country until 1016, when the Chazars were dispossessed by a combined effort of the Russians and Byzantines. An account of all the Crimean cities in the possession of the Chazars (965) is given in King Joseph's letter to Ḥasdai ibn Shaprut.Another Asiatic people of Turkish stock, the Pecheneges, who had established themselves in the Crimea at the beginning of the tenth century, expelled the Russians. During the domination of the Pecheneges, which lasted about a century and a half, the peninsula enjoyed great prosperity. At the beginning of the thirteenth century the Crimea became a province of the empire of the Kiptchaks, or Tatars. The new masters behaved generally with tolerance to the subjected people, and the Jews enjoyed equal rights with other inhabitants. A change, however, took place in their condition in 1258, when Berke, the third ruler of the Crimean Tatars, with his followers, embraced Islam, and the relations between the newly converted Mohammedans and the Jews became strained. About 1263 the Genoese established themselves at Kaffa, and the seaboard known as Gothia, extending to Cembalo (Balaklava), was ceded to them in 1315. Although many Jews lived in these places, little is known of them during the period of the Genoese domination, which lasted until 1475, when Mohammed II. subjected the Crimea and enslaved the Genoese and other Christians. In Taman at that time reigned the descendants of the Genoese Jew Simone de Guizolfi, who had secured this dukedom in 1419 by marrying the Princess Bichachanim.Under the Khans.Travelers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Busbeck, Cureus, etc.) tell of a considerable Jewish population in the Crimea (see Loewe, "Die Reste der Germanen am Schwarzen Meere," pp. 90, 115, 174, 183). Judging from some letters patent of 1594 granted to Jews of Karasu-Bazar, they were the victims of the rapacity of the Tatars. In these letters patent the khan deemed it necessary to prohibit the local authorities from stripping his protégés of their property—a proof that this was a common practise. A similar clause is found in another grant of 1743. A collection of letters patent granted to the Crimean Jews by various khans was published by Z. Firkovich (son of A. Firkovich), who pretends that these letters were given to the Karaites. The truth is that they were stolen by Karaites from the Krimchaki of Karasu-Bazar (Harkavy). Travelers in the Crimea in the seventeenth century report Jews as living at Kaffa (Theodosia), Karasu-Bazar, Koslow, Turleri, Bakhchi-Sarai, and Mankup (Des Lucca, "Relation des Tartares," i. 17).As shown by an epitaph in the cemetery of Chufut-Kale (Firkovich, "Abne Zikkaron," No. 512), the Karaites of that city were attacked in 1778 by the Tatars, twenty-seven persons being killed. Chufut-Kale, situated on a rocky mountain, became the forced abode of the Karaites, who were allowed to spend only their business hours in the Tatar capital. Arriving opposite the palace of the khans,they were required to alight and proceed on foot till out of sight. It can not be ascertained whether the Rabbinites also suffered from the riots of 1778, or whether they were subjected to the same treatment. In 1783 the Russians conquered the Crimea, and the history of the Jews there becomes merged in that of the Jews of Russia. From a letter (1784) sent from Chufut-Kale to Lutzk it is learned that the Jewish communities suffered heavily from the war between the Russians and the Tatars.The Krimchaki.There are three classes of Jews in the Crimea: the Krimchaki, the Karaites, and the Polish-Lithuanian Jews. The Krimchaki are the oldest settlers of the country. The time of their settlement in the Crimea can not be ascertained. They themselves assert that they went there in the sixth century. A tradition prevails among them to the effect that the manuscript ritual, which is still preserved in their synagogue at Karasu-Bazar, was transmitted from generation to generation for twelve centuries. It was composed by Moses of Kiev (compare Harkavy, "Altjüdische Denkmäler"). It is known under the title "Ḥazanya," and, with the exception of some slight variations, is the general Rumanian ritual. Harkavy, however, believes that the settlement of the Krimchaki is relatively of recent date. At present the greater number of them live in Karasu-Bazar, where they have their synagogue, presided over by a rabbi. In order that no profane discourse shall be held in the synagogue, they gather in the courtyard of the synagogue and wait there until the whole community is assembled. Then they enter and proceed at once with the service. As soon as this is concluded they leave the sanctuary in a body. They distinguish themselves by many other customs derived from the Tatars, whose language and customs they still retain. Thus, for instance, the ceremony of marriage takes place at dawn. Instead of using a "baldachin" ("ḥuppah"), they cover the bridegroom and the bride with a "ṭallit," while the bridesman and bridesmaid ("shoshbinim") twirl chickens round the heads of the couple seven times. Then, after killing the fowls, the bridegroom recites the consecrating formula, and the ceremony is concluded. The bride is not allowed to leave the house for seven days. The Krimchaki are engaged in handicrafts, viticulture, and agriculture. They are renowned for their scrupulous honesty.The Karaites.The Crimea was in the Middle Ages, and still is, the headquarters of the Karaites. Although the inscriptions on the scroll of the Law (Pinner, No. 10) preserved at the St. Petersburg Library, are proved to be forgeries, it is beyond doubt that in 1381 there were four Karaite communities in the Crimea—at Kaffa (Theodosia), Kale, Koslow (Eupatoria), and Yenikale—as is proved by a document of that date which is preserved at the St. Petersburg Library (Neubauer, "Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek," document 46).List of Karaitic Authors.A strong literary movement existed in the Crimea for many centuries. Among the most renowned scholars of the Crimea were: Jacob ben Moses ha-Temani (of Teman, Greece), author of "Sefer ha-Piṭron" (about the tenth century); Jacob ben Solomon of Mankup, author of a Hebrew grammar (about the twelfth century); Ezechiah ben Gedaliah ha-Nasi, a pupil of Abraham Kerimi (1348); Samuel ha-Ḳodesh ben David, author of "Massa' la-Ereẓ ha-Ḳedoshah" (1641); Moses ben Elijah ha Levi, author of "Massa' la-Ereẓ ha-Ḳedoshah" (1654); Joseph ben Jacob of Kale, liturgist; Isaac Ḥazzan ben Moses, liturgist (d. 1664); Hillel Ḥazzan Kenui, liturgist; Jacob ben Mordecai, liturgist (died 1701); Abraham ben Jacob Yerushalmi, author of "Emunah Omen" and several astronomical work (1713); Joseph Ḥazzan of Kale, liturgist; Moses Chelebi Sinani, author of a work on the slaughtering of animals (d. 1722); Simḥah ben Joseph of Kale, author of "Me'il Shemuel" (d. 1743); Moses Pasha of Kale, author of a commentary on the "Aẓulah" of Aaron I.; Samuel ben Abraham of Kale, author of "Ner Shemuel" and other works; Elijah Yerushalmi ben Baruk, author of "'Asarah Ma'amarot" (eighteenth century); Simḥah Lutzki, author of the bibliographical work "Oraḥ Ẓaddiḳim," and of many other works (b. 1740-41); Simḥah ben Joshua, former Rabbinite, author of Biblical commentaries (1818); Joseph Solomon ben Moses (known under the abbreviation "Yashar"), ḥakam of Koslow, author of "Ṭirat Kesef" (1825); Abraham ben Joseph Solomon, liturgist; Mordecai ha-Ḥazzan Sultanski, author of "Abḳat Rokel" and many other works (d. 1862); Abraham Firkovich, author of "Abne Zikkaron" (1786-1874); Solomon ben Abraham Beim, ḥazzan of the Karaite community of Odessa (b. about 1820). See Karaites and individual articles on the various scholars.Condition in 1755.Information concerning the condition of the Karaite communities in the Crimea in the second half of the eighteenth century is furnished by several documents preserved in the St. Petersburg Library. In a letter dated 1755 and addressed to Abraham. ha-Shofeṭ, the writer gives details which are substantially as follows: "The total Karaite population of the four communities numbers 500 families: 300 at Kale; 100 at Koslow; 50 at Kaffa; 50 at Mankup. Near Kaffa is Sulchat, where formerly existed an important community, possessing the largest synagogue in the Crimea. To-day it is of little importance, possessing only a ḥazzan and a shoḥeṭ, who recite the prayers morning and evening. All the synagogues, schools, and habitations of the Karaites are of stone. In each of these communities there is a school in which study is carried on throughout the day under the supervision of a teacher; in Kale there were four schools, three of which, however, are now closed. In the first lived Samuel ben Joseph, the author of a commentary on the "Mibḥar," which he did not finish; in the second lectured R. Samuel, the author of "Ner Shemuel"; in the third, Elijah ha-Ḥazzan, the scribe; and in the fourth, Elijah Melammed ben Isaac. Samuel Ḥazzan lectured at Koslow; Hillel ben Isaac, at Kaffa; Judah Ḥazzan ben Shelomoh, at Mankup. In 1735 the Crimea was invaded by the Turks. At Koslow they destroyed fifty boxes filled with books belonging to Elijah ben Isaac Ḥazzan.Another letter (1764) shows that the Karaites consideredit lawful to have two wives. In 1796 Catherine II. relieved the Karaites by reducing by one-half the poll-tax of twelve rubles which they, in common with the Rabbinites, had hitherto paid. When Nicholas I. issued the edict obliging Jews to serve in the army (1827), the Karaite S. Bobowich went to St. Petersburg, and, appealing to the edict of Catherine II., obtained the release of the Karaites from this obligation. They thus remained free from military service until 1874, when a new law was enacted compelling every Russian subject to serve in the army.Karaitic Constitution.Freedom from military service was not the only advantage the Karaites had gained over the Rabbinites. Other privileges—for instance, that of living and trading in any part of the empire—were granted to them. In 1837 they obtained for their rabbis the privileges enjoyed by the clergy of other faiths. A consistory, dealing with all the matters concerning Karaite worship in the Crimea, was established at Eupatoria. It is presided over by a ḥakam assisted by a ḥazzan and a shammash. These officials are elected by the people, but the election must have the assent of the government. Once the popular choice is sanctioned they can not be removed without the permission of the civil authorities. In addition to the salary which these officials draw from the Karaite communities, the government grants them 140 acres of land: 60 to the ḥakam, 40 to the ḥazzan, and 40 to the shammash. In 1894 the government established at Eupatoria a Karaite seminary of five classes, the inspector and the teachers of which enjoyed the same privileges as those of the gymnasium.The most important of the Karaite communities found in the Crimea is that of Eupatoria, which numbers about 500 families. The Karaites are engaged in trade, in which they succeed well, owing to the privileges they enjoy. It is very probable that, besides the Krimchaki, there were not many Rabbinites in the Crimea during the later period of the domination of the khans. The relatively happy condition of the Jews in Poland at that time had tempted most of the Crimean Rabbinites to emigrate thither. This circumstance accounts for the fact that in 1462 thirty Rabbinites, who had been shipwrecked near Kaffa, were compelled to appeal for help to the Karaites, and also explains the absence of Crimean-Rabbinite contributions to Jewish learning.A few prominent men from the earlier times of the Tatar domination deserve to be mentioned: Abraham Kerimi (fourteenth century), author of "Sefat Emet"; his son-in-law Eliakim; Moses ben Jacob, the exiled (1449) liturgist and author of many works; Asher ha-Kohen (1449); Kalman Ashkenazi (fifteenth century); Isaac Panyanto; Jeremiah Isaac Banin; Moses Kokos (1584); Baruk of Kale, author of "Meḳor Baruk," and his brother Mordecai of Kale; David ben Eliezer Laḥno, author of "Mishkan David."With the occupation of the Crimea by the Russians the Rabbinites gradually increased, and communities consisting chiefly of Polish and Lithuanian Jews are found throughout the country, which forms a part of the government of Taurida, Simferopol being its capital. The most important communities are: Armiansk-Perekop, Bakchi-Serai, Chufut-Kale, Eupatoria, Yenikale, Karasu-Bazar, Kertch (Bosporus), Kaffa (Theodosia). The Jewish population in the four Crimean districts is divided as follows: Eupatoria, 3,192 (5.06 per cent of the whole population); Perekop, 1,549 (3.01 per cent); Kaffa, 9,670 (6.05 per cent); Simferopol, 17,687 (8.85 per cent).Antiquities.Many Jewish antiquities were unearthed in the last century in various places in the Crimea. These antiquities consist of: (1) Judæo-Greek inscriptions, the authenticity of which is beyond any doubt. They give evidence that organized Jewish communities existed in the Crimea long before the common era. (2) Tumulary inscriptions to the number of 751, collected by the Karaite ḥakam Abraham Firkovich, in his "Abne Zikkaron," Wilna, 1872. The inscriptions were found in the cemeteries of the following places: 546 in Chufut-Kale, called "Emeḳ Yehoshofaṭ," dating from 151 to 1842; 5 at Sulchat, dating from 910 to 1140; 72 at Mankup, dating from 866 to 1777; 28 at Kaffa (Theodosia), dating from 1078 to 1845; 100 at Eupatoria, dating from 1593 to 1852. A. Harkavy expressed doubts concerning the dates of some of these inscriptions, believing them to have been altered by Firkowich. In Harkavy's opinion none of these inscriptions antedates the thirteenth century. In his "Abne Zikkaron" Firkovich gives the text of epigraphs which he pretended to have found on scrolls of the Law and on Bibles which he had collected and sold to the St. Petersburg Library. These epigraphs, which, if genuine, would throw some light on the history of the Jews in the Crimea during the domination of the Chazars, were manufactured by Firkovich himself, as has been demonstrated by A. HarkavyThe Alhambra Decree (also known as the Edict of Expulsion) was an edict issued on 31 March 1492 by the joint Catholic Monarchs of Spain (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon) ordering the expulsion of Jews from the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon (but not from theKingdom of Navarre) and its territories and possessions by 31 July of that year.[1]The edict was formally revoked on 16 December 1968,[2] following the Second Vatican Council.
BackgroundEdit
Main article: History of the Jews in SpainBeginning in the 8th century, Muslims had conquered and settled most of the Iberian Peninsula.Jews, who had lived in these regions since Roman times, were considered "People of the Book" and given special status and often thrived under Muslim rule.[3] The tolerance of the MuslimMoorish rulers of al-Andalus attracted Jewish immigration, and Jewish enclaves in Muslim Iberian cities flourished as places of learning and commerce. Progressively, however, living conditions for Jews in al-Andalus became harsher, especially after the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate.[3]The Reconquista, the gradual reconquest of Muslim Iberia by the Christian kingdoms, was driven by a powerful religious motivation: to reclaim Iberia for Christendom following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania centuries before. By the 14th century, most of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal) had been conquered by the Christian kingdoms of Castile,Aragon, Leon, Galicia, Navarre, and Portugal.Overt hostility against Jews became more pronounced, finding expression in brutal episodes of violence and oppression. Thousands of Jews sought to escape these attacks by converting toChristianity; they were commonly called conversos, New Christians, or marranos. At first these conversions seemed an effective solution to the cultural conflict: many converso families met with social and commercial success. But eventually their success made these new Catholics unpopular with some of the clergy of the Church and royal hierarchies.These suspicions on the part of Christians were only heightened by the fact that some of the coerced conversions were undoubtedly insincere. Some, but not all, conversos had understandably chosen to salvage their social and commercial prestige by the only option open to them – baptism and embrace of Christianity – while privately adhering to their Jewish practice and faith. These secret practitioners are commonly referred to as crypto-Jews or marranos.The existence of crypto-Jews was a provocation for secular and ecclesiastical leaders who were already hostile toward Spain's Jewry. The uncertainty over the sincerity of Jewish converts added fuel to the fire of antisemitism in 15th century Spain.
European context
Main article: Jews and Judaism in EuropeExpulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600.From the 13th to the 16th centuries many European countries expelled the Jews from their territory on at least 15 occasions, with Spain being preceded by England, France and German lands, among many others, and succeeded by at least five more expulsions. So Spain does not provide any exception to a history of the life of Jews among Christian nations.[4][5]
Ferdinand and Isabella
The hostility toward Jews was brought to a climax by "the Catholic Monarchs" – Ferdinand II andIsabella I, whose marriage in 1469 formed a personal union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, with coordinated policies between their distinct kingdoms.Ferdinand and Isabella took seriously the reports that some crypto-Jews were not only privately practicing their former faith, but were secretly trying to draw other conversos back into the Jewish fold. In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella made formal application to Rome for a tribunal of the Inquisition in Castile to investigate these and other suspicions. In 1487, King Ferdinand established the Spanish Inquisition in Aragon.[6] It is not known how many had not truly converted, had lapsed from their new Christianity, or were attempting to persuade others to revert.The independent Islamic Emirate of Granada had been a tributary state to Castile since 1238. In 1491, in preparation for an imminent transition to Castilian territory, the Treaty of Granada was signed by Emir Muhammad XII and the Queen of Castile, protecting the religious freedoms of the Jews and Muslims there. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella completed the Catholic Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from Islamic al-Andalus by victory in the Battle of Granada. In acquiring the city of Granada a large Jewish and Muslim population came under her rule. Soon Isabella and Ferdinand chose to replace the Treaty of Granada's Jewish protection terms with the Alhambra Decree's Inquisitional Castilian and Aragonite persecution.
DecreeEdit
A signed copy of the Edict of ExpulsionThe king and queen issued the Alhambra Decree less than three months after the surrender of Granada. In it, Jews were accused of trying "to subvert their holy Catholic faith and trying to draw faithful Christians away from their beliefs." These measures were not new in Europe.[7]Some Jews were only given four months and ordered to convert to Christianity or leave the country. Under the edict, Jews were promised royal "protection and security" for the effective three-month window before the deadline. They were permitted to take their belongings with them – except "gold or silver or minted money".[citation needed]The punishment for any Jew who did not convert or leave by the deadline was death without trial.[1] The punishment for a non-Jew who sheltered or hid Jews was the confiscation of all belongings and hereditary privileges.
Dispersal
The Spanish Jews who chose to leave Spain dispersed throughout the region of North Africa known as the Maghreb. They also fled to south-eastern Europe where they were granted safety and formed flourishing local Jewish communities, the largest being those of Salonika, Istanbul, and Sarajevo. In those regions, they often intermingled with the already existing Mizrahi (Middle Eastern Jewish) communities.Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire, learning about the expulsion of Jews from Spain, dispatches the Ottoman Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands, mainly to the cities ofThessaloniki (currently in Greece) and İzmir (currently in Turkey).[8]Scholars disagree about how many Jews left Spain as a result of the decree; the numbers vary between 130,000 and 800,000. Many (likely more than half) went to Portugal, where they eludedpersecution for only a few years. The Jewish community in Portugal (perhaps then some 10% of that country's population)[9] were then declared Christians by Royal decree unless they left.Tens of thousands of Jews died while trying to reach safety. In the last days before the expulsion, rumors spread throughout Spain that many Jews had swallowed gold and diamonds they hoped to take with them. As a result, many Jews were knifed to death and had their stomachs cut open by brigands looking for treasure. In another example, Jews who tried escaping via the sea were often charged exorbitant sums by Spanish ship captains, and were then sometimes tossed overboard in the middle of the ocean.[10]
Conversions
Other Spanish Jews (estimates range between 50,000 and 70,000)[citation needed] chose to avoid expulsion by conversion to Christianity. However, their conversion did not protect them from ecclesiastical hostility after the Spanish Inquisition came into full effect; persecution and expulsion were common. Many of these "New Christians" were eventually forced to either leave the countries or intermarry with the local populace by the dual Inquisitions of Portugal and Spain. Many settled in North Africa, Latin America [11] or elsewhere in Europe, most notably the Netherlands (see Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands).A Y chromosome DNA test conducted by the University of Leicester and the Pompeu Fabra University has indicated that around 20% of Spaniards today have direct patrilineal descent from Sephardic Jews. The result is in contradiction [12][13][14][15][16] or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and conflicts with mainstream historiography (denies Neolithic,Roman, Greek, Phoenician, Germanic, Alani, Slavic, Berber, Arab and other contributions to modern Iberians) and has been questioned by the authors themselves [17][18][19][20] and byStephen Oppenheimer.[21]
Contemporary opinionsEdit
The Spanish government has actively pursued a policy of reconciliation with the descendants of its expelled Jews. In 1992, in a ceremony marking the 500th anniversary of the Edict of Expulsion,King Juan Carlos (wearing a skullcap) prayed alongside Israeli president Chaim Herzog and members of the Jewish community in the Beth Yaacov Synagogue (Madrid, Spain). The King said that 'Sefarad (the Hebrew name for Spain) is no longer nostalgia, nor a place where Jews should feel as if at home, because Hispano-Jews are home in Spain. What matters is the desire to analyse and project the past in regards to our future.'[22]As of November 2012, Sephardic Jews have been given the right to automatic Spanish nationality without the requirement of residence in Spain. Prior to November 2012, Sephardic Jews already had the right to obtain Spanish citizenship after a reduced residency period of two years (versus ten years for foreigners). While their citizenship is being processed, Sephardic Jews will be entitled to the consular protection of the Kingdom of Spain.[23] This makes Spain the only nation aside from Israel that currently grants automatic citizenship to the descendants of Jews expelled during the European medieval evictions. Today, the number of Jews in Spain is estimated at 50,000The Alhambra Decree (also known as the Edict of Expulsion) was an edict issued on 31 March 1492 by the joint Catholic Monarchs of Spain (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon) ordering the expulsion of Jews from the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon (but not from theKingdom of Navarre) and its territories and possessions by 31 July of that year.[1]The edict was formally revoked on 16 December 1968,[2] following the Second Vatican Council.
BackgroundEdit
Main article: History of the Jews in SpainBeginning in the 8th century, Muslims had conquered and settled most of the Iberian Peninsula.Jews, who had lived in these regions since Roman times, were considered "People of the Book" and given special status and often thrived under Muslim rule.[3] The tolerance of the MuslimMoorish rulers of al-Andalus attracted Jewish immigration, and Jewish enclaves in Muslim Iberian cities flourished as places of learning and commerce. Progressively, however, living conditions for Jews in al-Andalus became harsher, especially after the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate.[3]The Reconquista, the gradual reconquest of Muslim Iberia by the Christian kingdoms, was driven by a powerful religious motivation: to reclaim Iberia for Christendom following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania centuries before. By the 14th century, most of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal) had been conquered by the Christian kingdoms of Castile,Aragon, Leon, Galicia, Navarre, and Portugal.Overt hostility against Jews became more pronounced, finding expression in brutal episodes of violence and oppression. Thousands of Jews sought to escape these attacks by converting toChristianity; they were commonly called conversos, New Christians, or marranos. At first these conversions seemed an effective solution to the cultural conflict: many converso families met with social and commercial success. But eventually their success made these new Catholics unpopular with some of the clergy of the Church and royal hierarchies.These suspicions on the part of Christians were only heightened by the fact that some of the coerced conversions were undoubtedly insincere. Some, but not all, conversos had understandably chosen to salvage their social and commercial prestige by the only option open to them – baptism and embrace of Christianity – while privately adhering to their Jewish practice and faith. These secret practitioners are commonly referred to as crypto-Jews or marranos.The existence of crypto-Jews was a provocation for secular and ecclesiastical leaders who were already hostile toward Spain's Jewry. The uncertainty over the sincerity of Jewish converts added fuel to the fire of antisemitism in 15th century Spain.
European context
Main article: Jews and Judaism in EuropeExpulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600.From the 13th to the 16th centuries many European countries expelled the Jews from their territory on at least 15 occasions, with Spain being preceded by England, France and German lands, among many others, and succeeded by at least five more expulsions. So Spain does not provide any exception to a history of the life of Jews among Christian nations.[4][5]
Ferdinand and Isabella
The hostility toward Jews was brought to a climax by "the Catholic Monarchs" – Ferdinand II andIsabella I, whose marriage in 1469 formed a personal union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, with coordinated policies between their distinct kingdoms.Ferdinand and Isabella took seriously the reports that some crypto-Jews were not only privately practicing their former faith, but were secretly trying to draw other conversos back into the Jewish fold. In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella made formal application to Rome for a tribunal of the Inquisition in Castile to investigate these and other suspicions. In 1487, King Ferdinand established the Spanish Inquisition in Aragon.[6] It is not known how many had not truly converted, had lapsed from their new Christianity, or were attempting to persuade others to revert.The independent Islamic Emirate of Granada had been a tributary state to Castile since 1238. In 1491, in preparation for an imminent transition to Castilian territory, the Treaty of Granada was signed by Emir Muhammad XII and the Queen of Castile, protecting the religious freedoms of the Jews and Muslims there. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella completed the Catholic Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from Islamic al-Andalus by victory in the Battle of Granada. In acquiring the city of Granada a large Jewish and Muslim population came under her rule. Soon Isabella and Ferdinand chose to replace the Treaty of Granada's Jewish protection terms with the Alhambra Decree's Inquisitional Castilian and Aragonite persecution.
DecreeEdit
A signed copy of the Edict of ExpulsionThe king and queen issued the Alhambra Decree less than three months after the surrender of Granada. In it, Jews were accused of trying "to subvert their holy Catholic faith and trying to draw faithful Christians away from their beliefs." These measures were not new in Europe.[7]Some Jews were only given four months and ordered to convert to Christianity or leave the country. Under the edict, Jews were promised royal "protection and security" for the effective three-month window before the deadline. They were permitted to take their belongings with them – except "gold or silver or minted money".[citation needed]The punishment for any Jew who did not convert or leave by the deadline was death without trial.[1] The punishment for a non-Jew who sheltered or hid Jews was the confiscation of all belongings and hereditary privileges.
Dispersal
The Spanish Jews who chose to leave Spain dispersed throughout the region of North Africa known as the Maghreb. They also fled to south-eastern Europe where they were granted safety and formed flourishing local Jewish communities, the largest being those of Salonika, Istanbul, and Sarajevo. In those regions, they often intermingled with the already existing Mizrahi (Middle Eastern Jewish) communities.Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire, learning about the expulsion of Jews from Spain, dispatches the Ottoman Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands, mainly to the cities ofThessaloniki (currently in Greece) and İzmir (currently in Turkey).[8]Scholars disagree about how many Jews left Spain as a result of the decree; the numbers vary between 130,000 and 800,000. Many (likely more than half) went to Portugal, where they eludedpersecution for only a few years. The Jewish community in Portugal (perhaps then some 10% of that country's population)[9] were then declared Christians by Royal decree unless they left.Tens of thousands of Jews died while trying to reach safety. In the last days before the expulsion, rumors spread throughout Spain that many Jews had swallowed gold and diamonds they hoped to take with them. As a result, many Jews were knifed to death and had their stomachs cut open by brigands looking for treasure. In another example, Jews who tried escaping via the sea were often charged exorbitant sums by Spanish ship captains, and were then sometimes tossed overboard in the middle of the ocean.[10]
Conversions
Other Spanish Jews (estimates range between 50,000 and 70,000)[citation needed] chose to avoid expulsion by conversion to Christianity. However, their conversion did not protect them from ecclesiastical hostility after the Spanish Inquisition came into full effect; persecution and expulsion were common. Many of these "New Christians" were eventually forced to either leave the countries or intermarry with the local populace by the dual Inquisitions of Portugal and Spain. Many settled in North Africa, Latin America [11] or elsewhere in Europe, most notably the Netherlands (see Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands).A Y chromosome DNA test conducted by the University of Leicester and the Pompeu Fabra University has indicated that around 20% of Spaniards today have direct patrilineal descent from Sephardic Jews. The result is in contradiction [12][13][14][15][16] or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and conflicts with mainstream historiography (denies Neolithic,Roman, Greek, Phoenician, Germanic, Alani, Slavic, Berber, Arab and other contributions to modern Iberians) and has been questioned by the authors themselves [17][18][19][20] and byStephen Oppenheimer.[21]
Contemporary opinionsEdit
The Spanish government has actively pursued a policy of reconciliation with the descendants of its expelled Jews. In 1992, in a ceremony marking the 500th anniversary of the Edict of Expulsion,King Juan Carlos (wearing a skullcap) prayed alongside Israeli president Chaim Herzog and members of the Jewish community in the Beth Yaacov Synagogue (Madrid, Spain). The King said that 'Sefarad (the Hebrew name for Spain) is no longer nostalgia, nor a place where Jews should feel as if at home, because Hispano-Jews are home in Spain. What matters is the desire to analyse and project the past in regards to our future.'[22]As of November 2012, Sephardic Jews have been given the right to automatic Spanish nationality without the requirement of residence in Spain. Prior to November 2012, Sephardic Jews already had the right to obtain Spanish citizenship after a reduced residency period of two years (versus ten years for foreigners). While their citizenship is being processed, Sephardic Jews will be entitled to the consular protection of the Kingdom of Spain.[23] This makes Spain the only nation aside from Israel that currently grants automatic citizenship to the descendants of Jews expelled during the European medieval evictions. Today, the number of Jews in Spain is estimated at 50,000
