1900 Korean Diaspora in Hawaii and speakers of Esperanto/ French( surname Auld/ Naud-Pollat)

Spoliation of Jews in France from 1940 to 1944 (the Mattéoli Mission)La Mission d’études sur la spoliation des Juifs de France de 1940 à 1944 (la Mission Mattéoli)[The Study Mission on the Spoliation of Jews in France from 1940 to 1944 (the Mattéoli Mission)]This commission began work in February 1997 and submitted its final report to Prime Minister Lionel Jospin on April 17, 2000. The commission, under the leadership of Jean Mattéoli, head of France’s Economic and Social Council, was to determine the fate of missing valuables, the identity of those who benefited from them, and whether any public authorities still possessed property seized during the war. A detailed summary of the report (in French) may be found at:http://crdp.ac-reims.fr/memoire/enseigner/memoire_vichy/11spoliation.htmA copy of the final report may be purchased from la Documentation Française:http://www.ladocfrancaise.gouv.frJean Mattéoli, Chair of the Economic and Social Council, President of the Mission1 rue de la Faisanderie75016 ParisTelephone: +33 1 45 05 14 41Fax: +33 1 45 05 14 30La Fondation pour la mémoire des victimes de la Shoah[The Foundation for the Memory of the Victims of the Shoah]Recommended by the Mattéoli Mission and decreed on December 26, 2000, the Foundation has as its mission the development and diffusion of research and knowledge regarding anti-Semitism and human rights violations in France during World War II. It acts to assure that unclaimed assets and inheritances are restituted and that the victims of the Shoah receive the moral recognition they deserve. The Foundation will make annual contributions to humanitarian and social organizations in France and abroad. Additionally, there will be an establishment of a fund, (Le Fonds) of 2.4 billion Francs, donated by the government and private banks that profited during the War. The fund will be used to help needy victims of the Shoah and anti-Semitic legislation.Professor Ady Steg, Vice President of the Mattéoli MissionCommission pour l’indemnisation des victimes de spoliations intervenues du fait des législations antisémites en vigueur pendant l’Occupation (CIVS- Commission Drai)[Commission for the Compensation of Victims of Spoliation Resulting from Anti-Semitic Legislation in Force during the Occupation (CIVS- Drai Commission)]Founded in November 1999, this Commission reviews the claims submitted by victims of spoliation, considers and recommends the appropriate reparations, restitution, or compensation based on their three principles of equity, diligence, and pragmatism. As of October 31, 2001 the Commission received 7,725 individual claims for compensation, and adopted 1,276 recommendations for compensation totaling 26.43 million Euros, of which bank-related spoliation account for 200,000 Euros.Pierre Drai, President1, rue de la Manutention75016 ParisTelephone: +33 1 56 52 85 00Email: webmestre@civs.gouv.frhttp://www.civs.gouv.frCaisse des Dépôts et Consignations[Register of Deposits and Consignments]The Register investigated its own role and behavior during the Occupation, particularly regarding the spoliation of French Jews. The investigative committee studied these questions from 1990 until November 2001, when it filed its final report.Daniel Lebègue, DirectorPierre Sargoussi, Counselor of the Director56, rue de Lille75007 ParisTelephone: + 33 1 40 49 79 51Fax: +33 1 40 49 44 32Service des archivesCaisse des dépôts et consignations15, quai Anatole France75007 Parishttp://www.caissedesdepots.frConseil du Patrimoine Privé de la Ville de Paris relatif aux spoliations[Council of Private Inheritance of the City of Paris relating to Spoliations]The City of Paris created this commission in the fall of 1996 to determine if any of the numerous private properties owned by the city were acquired through spoliation during World War II.Noël Chahid-Nouraï, PresidentBernard Hatoux, Vice-PresidentMairie de ParisPlace de l’Hôtel de Ville75004 ParisTelephone: + 33 1 42 76 40 40Commission d’enquête sur la spoliation des familles juives, à Lyon, durant la seconde guerre mondiale[Investigative Commission on the Spoliation of Jewish Families in Lyon during World War II]This commission was created to investigate the city of Lyon’s acquisition of plundered Jewish property during World War II. It finished its work and submitted its final report, “Aryanisation économique et restitutions dans le département du Rhône” to the mayor of Lyon on July 3, 2001.Jean-Marie Chanon, President of the CommissionVirginie Saugey, Press Attaché & Contact PersonTelephone: + 33 4 72 10 30 41Fax: + 33 4 72 10 30 49Email: virginie.saugey@mairie-lyon.frCommission extra municipale d’étude de la spoliation des bien juifs à Bordeaux et Merignac durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale[Extra Municipal Study Commission on the Spoliation of Jewish Assets in Bordeaux and Merignac during World War II]Created in November 1998, the Commission is in charge of analyzing the act of spoliation of Jewish assets in the towns of Bordeaux and Merignac. The commission is supported by the organization, structure, and materials of “Mémoire de Bordeaux,” which was created in 1987 to research and preserve the testimonies and documents of Bordeaux’s Jewish community and to shed light on the plundered assets and reparations in this region.Michel Naud, Director of “La Mémoire de Bordeaux”Stéphane BarryMémoire de Bordeaux1 Rue de Cursol33000 BordeauxTelephone: +33 5 56 52 59 19Fax: + 33 5 56 52 92 33Email: memoire@mairie-bordeaux.frhttp://www.mairie-bordeaux.fr/memoire-bx/r1recherche.htmDécret 2001-243 du 21 mars 2001 : L’Accord entre le Gouvernement de la République française et le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d’Amérique relatif à l’indemnisation de certaines spoliations intervenues pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale[Decree 2001-243 of March 21, 2001: The Agreement between the Government of the Republic of France at the Government of the United States of America relating to the Indemnification of Certain Spoliations Committed during World War II]This agreement between France and the USA summarizes recent actions taken by the French government to research stolen assets, indemnify the victims, and publicize these efforts globally. The agreement stipulates that the two countries will exchange notes and banking records to assure that plundered assets and bank accounts are properly restituted to their rightful owners or claimants.Francis Lott, Ambassador charged with French action for the indemnification of Shoah victims19, avenue KléberF-75775 Paris Cedex 16Telephone: + 33 1 43 17 74 27Fax: + 33 1 43 17 62 70Décret 2000-657[Decree 2000-657, Decree of the Jewish Orphans]Signed on July 13, 2000, this decree stipulates that anyone whose parents were deported from France as part of the anti-Semitic persecutions during the Occupation and who died during the deportation is entitled to reparations. In order to qualify for compensation, the claimant must have been younger than 21 at the time of their parents’ deportation and cannot be receiving an indemnity from Germany or Austria for the same event. Applicants outside of France may file claims with the French Embassy or Consulate in their country of residence.Ministère de la DéfenseDirection des status, des pensions et de la réinsertion SocialeQuartier LorgeRue Neuve de Bourg l’Abbé BP 6140-14064 CAEN CedexTelephone: + 33 2 31 38 45 21+ 33 2 31 38 45 17 (for people living overseas)Fax: + 33 2 31 38 45 84Statut d’interné politique[Statute of the Political Internee]This statute concerns people who were interred in a camp for at least 90 days and children who were housed in orphanages run by the UGIF (Union générale des Israëlites de France). The identification card of the political internee is granted by the Ministry of War Veterans (ONAC). Interested persons must furnish documentation of internment, for which it may be necessary to contact the Archives and History service of the OSE (Oeuvre de Secours aux Enfants).Ministère de la Défense, Service StatutsIle de France10, avenue du Val de Fontenay94 135 Fontenay-sous-BoisTelephone: + 33 1 49 74 34 00Archives et HistoireOeuvre de Secours aux EnfantsTelephone: + 33 1 53 38 20Email: ose@ose-france.orgPension de Réforme[Reform Pensions]A reform pension may be obtained under certain conditions, even to civil victims who were not political internees. The claimant must furnish a medical file demonstrating that the deterioration of his state of health is concurrent with harm inflicted during the war.Ministère de la Défense, Service StatutsIle de France10, avenue du Val de Fontenay94 135 Fontenay-sous-BoisTelephone: + 33 1 49 74 34 00Les Musées Nationaux Recupèration[The National Museums of Recuperation]The French Museum Directorate of the Ministry of Culture of France maintains a database of the nearly 2,000 artworks that were recovered in Germany at the end of World War II and have not be reclaimed by their rightful owners. The Ministry of Culture has published an illustrated catalogue (searchable online) in an attempt to aid research and recuperation efforts.Marie-Renée CourtyIsabelle Phalippon-RobertEmail: marie-renee.courty@culture.frIsabelle.phalippon-robert@culture.frBarclays Bank and JP Morgan & Co. French Bank SettlementsBarclays Bank and J.P. Morgan & Co. have agreed to pay $3,612,500 and $2,750,000, respectively, in U.S. dollars to settle legal claims relating to World War II era conduct of their and their predecessors' operations in France. A website contains information about a proposed Settlement Agreement intended to settle and resolve Holocaust-related legal claims against J.P. Morgan & Co. and Barclays Bank regarding their banking activities in France during World War II. Potential claimants have until September 30, 2002 to submit applications. To obtain a claims form or determine if you qualify to make a claim, call the following toll free number:+ 1 800 169 8318 (Toll Free)

CONFERENCES

France participated in the London Conference on Nazi Gold.France participated in the Washington Conference on Holocaust-Era Assets.











The human history of Hawaii includes phases of early Polynesian settlement, British arrival, unification, Euro-American and Asian immigrators, the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, a brief period as the Republic of Hawaii, and admission to the United States as Hawaii Territory and then as the state of Hawaii.

Discovery and settlement

Main article: Ancient HawaiʻiThe earliest settlements in the Hawaiian Islands are generally believed to have been made byPolynesians who traveled to Hawaii using large double-hulled canoes. They brought with them pigs, dogs, chickens, taro, sweet potatoes, coconut, banana, sugarcane, and other Pacific plants and animals.There are several theories regarding migration to Hawaii. The "one-migration" theory suggests a single settlement. A variation on the one-migration theory instead suggests a single, continuous settlement period. Several "multiple migration" theories exist. One variation suggests that the original migration could have been followed by settlers from the Marquesas Islands, and then later settlement by Tahitians.There are numerous possible accounts of landings by Europeans, Chinese and others long before the arrival of Captain Cook; however, none of these have been documented with certainty.On January 18, 1778 Captain James Cook and his crew, while attempting to discover theNorthwest Passage between Alaska and Asia, were surprised to find the Hawaiian islands so far north in the Pacific.[1] He named them the "Sandwich Islands", after the fourth Earl of Sandwich. After the discovery by Cook, other Europeans and Americans came to the Sandwich Islands.

Kingdom of Hawaii

Main article: Kingdom of Hawaii

Formation of the Hawaiian Kingdom

Kamehameha I unified the islandsThe islands were united under a single ruler, Kamehameha I, for the first time in 1810 with the help of foreign weapons and advisors. The monarchy then adopted a flag similar to the one used as the present flag of the State of Hawaii, with the Union Flag in the canton (top quarter next to the flagpole) and eight horizontal stripes (alternating white, red, blue, from the top), representing the eight major islands of Hawaii.In May 1819, Prince Liholiho became King Kamehameha II. Under pressure from his co-regent and stepmother, Kaʻahumanu, he abolished the kapu system that had ruled life in the islands. He signaled this revolutionary change by sitting down to eat with Kaʻahumanu and other women of chiefly rank, an act forbidden under the old religious system—see ʻAi Noa. Kekuaokalani, a cousin who thought he was to share power with Liholiho, organized supporters of the kapu system, but his forces were defeated by Kaʻahumanu and Liholiho in December 1819 at the battle of Kuamoʻo.[2]

Imperial Russia

In 1815 the Russian empire affected the islands when Georg Anton Schäffer, agent of theRussian-American Company, came to retrieve goods seized by Kaumualiʻi, chief of Kauaʻi island. Kaumualiʻi signed a treaty making Tsar Alexander I protectorate over Kauaʻi. From 1817 to 1853Fort Elizabeth, near the Waimea River, was one of three Russian forts on the island.

France

Main article: The French IncidentIn the early kingdom, Protestant ministers convinced Hawaiian rulers to make Catholicism illegal, deport French priests, and imprison Native Hawaiian Catholic converts.In 1839 Captain Laplace of the French frigate Artémise sailed to Hawaii. Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III signed the Edict of Toleration on July 17, 1839 and paid $20,000 in compensation for the deportation of the priests and the incarceration and torture of converts, agreeing to Laplace's demands. The kingdom proclaimed:That the Catholic worship be declared free, throughout all the dominions subject to the king of the Sandwich Islands; the members of this religious faith shall enjoy in them the privileges granted to Protestants.The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu returned and Kamehameha III donated land for them to build a church as reparation.Main article: The French Invasion (1849)In August 1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin arrived in Honolulu Harbor with La Poursuivanteand Gassendi. De Tromelin made ten demands to King Kamehameha III on August 22, mainly that full religious rights be given to Catholics, (the ban on Catholicism had been lifted, but Catholics still enjoyed only partial religious rights). On August 25 the demands had not been met. After a second warning was made to the civilians, French troops overwhelmed the skeleton forceand captured Honolulu Fort, spiked the coastal guns and destroyed all other weapons they found (mainly muskets and ammunition). They raided government buildings and general property in Honolulu, causing $100,000 in damages. After the raids the invasion force withdrew to the fort. De Tromelin eventually recalled his men and left Hawaii on September 5.

Great Britain

Main article: Paulet Affair (1843)On February 10, 1843, Lord George Paulet on the Royal Navy warship HMS Carysfort entered Honolulu Harbor and demanded that King Kamehameha III cede the Hawaiian Islands to the British Crown. Under the guns of the frigate, Kamehameha stepped down under protest.[3]Kamehameha III surrendered to Paulet on February 25,Where are you, chiefs, people, and commons from my ancestors, and people from foreign lands?'Hear ye! I make known to you that I am in perplexity by reason of difficulties into which I have been brought without cause, therefore I have given away the life of our land. Hear ye! but my rule over you, my people, and your privileges will continue, for I have hope that the life of the land will be restored when my conduct is justified.Done at Honolulu, Oahu, this 25th day of February, 1843.Kamehameha III.Kekauluohi.[4]Gerrit P. Judd, a missionary who had become the Minister of Finance, secretly sent envoys to the United States, France and Britain, to protest Paulet's actions.[5]The protest was forwarded to Rear Admiral Richard Darton Thomas, Paulet's commanding officer, who arrived at Honolulu harbor on July 26, 1843 on HMS Dublin. Thomas repudiated Paulet's actions, and on July 31, 1843, restored the Hawaiian government. In his restoration speech, Kamehameha declared that "Ua mau ke ea o ka ʻāina i ka pono", the motto of the future State of Hawaii translated as "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness."Honolulu Fort, 1853

Kamehameha family

Dynastic rule by the Kamehameha family ended in 1872 with the death of Kamehameha V. After the short reign of Lunalilo, the House of Kalākaua came to the throne. These transitions were by election of candidates of noble birth. Princess Ka'iulani tried very hard to prevent her country from becoming part of the United States.

United States

The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 between the Kingdom of Hawaii and the United States allowed for duty-free importation of Hawaiian sugar (from sugarcane) into the United States beginning in 1876. This promoted sugar plantation agriculture. In exchange, Hawai'i ceded Pearl Harbor, including Ford Island (Hawaiian: Mokuʻumeʻume), together with its shore for four or five miles back, free of cost to the U.S.[6] The U. S. demanded this area based on an 1873 report commissioned by the U. S. Secretary of War. This treaty explicitly acknowledged Hawai'i as a sovereign nation.Although the treaty also included duty-free importation of rice, which was by this time becoming a major crop in the abandoned taro patches in the wetter parts of the islands, it was the influx of immigrants from Asia (first Chinese, and later Japanese) needed to support the escalating sugar industry that provided the impetus for expansion of rice growing. High water requirements for growing sugarcane resulted in extensive water works projects on all of the major islands to divert streams from the wet windward slopes to the dry lowlands.

Hawaiian revolutions

Main articles: Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Republic of Hawaii, and Hawaiian RevolutionsKing David KalākauaSeveral rebellions and revolutions challenged the governments of the Kingdom and Republic of Hawaii during the late 19th century.

Rebellion of 1887

In 1887, a group of cabinet officials and advisors to King David Kalākaua and an armed militia forced the king to promulgate what is known as the Bayonet Constitution. The impetus given for the new constitution was the frustration of the Reform Party (also known as the Missionary Party) with growing debts, spending habits of the King, and general governance. It was specifically triggered by a failed attempt by Kalākaua to create a Polynesian Federation, and accusations of an opium bribery scandal.[note 1][8] The 1887 constitution stripped the monarchy of much of its authority, imposed significant income and property requirements for voting, and completely disenfranchised all Asians from voting.[7]:20 When Kalākaua died in 1891 during a visit to San Francisco, his sister Liliʻuokalani assumed the throne.Queen Liliʻuokalani in her autobiography called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii".[9]:233 Native Hawaiians felt the 1887 constitution was imposed by a minority of the foreign population because of the king's refusal to renew the Reciprocity Treaty, which now included an amendment that would have allowed the US Navy to have a permanent naval base at Pearl Harbor in Oʻahu, and the king's foreign policy. According to bills submitted by the King to the Hawaiian parliament, the King's foreign policy included an alliance with Japan and supported other countries suffering from colonialism. Many Native Hawaiians opposed US military presence in their country.

Wilcox Rebellions

Main article: Wilcox rebellionsA plot by Princess Liliʻuokalani was exposed to overthrow King David Kalākaua in a military coup in 1888. In 1889, a rebellion of Native Hawaiians led by Colonel Robert Wilcox attempted to replace the unpopular Bayonet Constitution and stormed ʻIolani Palace. The rebellion was crushed.

Revolution of 1893

Main article: Overthrow of the Kingdom of HawaiiUS Marines at the time of the overthrow, January 1893According to Queen Liliʻuokalani, immediately upon ascending the throne, she received petitions from two-thirds of her subjects and the major Native Hawaiian political party in parliament, Hui Kalaiʻaina, asking her to proclaim a new constitution. Liliʻuokalani drafted a new constitution that would restore the monarchy's authority and the suffrage requirements of the 1887 constitution.In response to Liliʻuokalani's suspected actions, a group of European and American residents formed a Committee of Safety on January 14, 1893. After a meeting of supporters, the Committee committed itself to removing the Queen and annexation to the United States.[10]United States Government Minister John L. Stevens summoned a company of uniformed US Marines from the USS Boston and two companies of US sailors to land and take up positions at the US Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. The Committee of Safety had claimed an "imminent threat to American lives and property".[note 2] The Provisional Government of Hawaii was established to manage the Hawaiian islands between the overthrow and expected annexation, supported by the Honolulu Rifles, a militia group which had defended the kingdom against the Wilcox rebellion in 1889. Under this pressure, Liliʻuokalani abdicated her throne. The Queen's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, also pleaded for justice:I Liliʻuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom.That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government.Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.An immediate investigation into the events of the overthrow commissioned by PresidentCleveland was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount. The Blount Reportwas completed on July 17, 1893 and concluded that "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government."[11]Minister Stevens was recalled, and the military commander of forces in Hawaii was forced to resign his commission. President Cleveland stated "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy." Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address[12] and that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention." Submitting the matter to Congress on December 18, 1893, after provisional President Sanford Dole refused to reinstate the Queen on Cleveland's command, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee under chairman John Morgan continued investigation into the matter.On February 26, 1894, the Morgan Report was submitted, contradicting the Blount Report and finding Stevens and the US troops "not guilty" of any involvement in the overthrow. The report asserted that, "The complaint by Liliʻuokalani in the protest that she sent to the President of the United States and dated the 18th day of January, is not, in the opinion of the committee, well founded in fact or in justice."[13] After submission of the Morgan Report, Cleveland ended any efforts to reinstate the monarchy, and conducted diplomatic relations with the Dole government. He rebuffed further entreaties from the Queen to intervene.

More rebellions

In 1893 the Leper War on Kauaʻi was suppressed by troops.In an 1895 Counter-Revolution, a group led by Colonel Robert Nowlein, Minister Joseph Nawahi, members of the Royal Household Guards, and later Robert Wilcox, attempted to overthrow the Republic. The leaders including Liliʻuokalani were captured, convicted, and imprisoned.Sanford B. Dole, left, led theRepublic of Hawaii and was first governor of the Territory of Hawaii

Republic of Hawaii

Main article: Republic of HawaiiAfter Benjamin Harrison failed to be reelected US president, Grover Cleveland became the new president, a friend of Liliʻuokalani and anti-expansionist. He delayed annexation and demanded restoration of the Queen. Fears grew of a US intervention to restore the kingdom. A Constitutional Convention began on May 30, 1894 and the Republic of Hawaii was declared on July 4, 1894,American Independence Day, under the presidency of Sanford Dole.

American territory

Main article: Territory of Hawaii

Annexation to the United States

Political cartoon of 1898In March 1897, William McKinley succeeded Grover Cleveland as president. He agreed to a treaty of annexation but it failed in the Senate because petitions from the islands indicated lack of popular support. A joint resolution was written by Congressman Francis G. Newlands to annex Hawaii.In 1897 the Empire of Japan sent warships to Hawaii to oppose annexation.[14]McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution which annexed Hawaii, illegally in the opinion of annexation opponents, on July 7, 1898 to become the Territory of Hawaii. On 22 February 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act established a territorial government with Sanford Dole, the former President of the Republic of Hawaii, appointed governor by US President Mckinley. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on 20 February 1901. Some Hawaiian people formed theHawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, the first congressional delegate from Hawaii.

Plantation era

Hawaii's Big FiveC. Brewer & Co.Theo H. Davies & Co.AmfacCastle & CookeAlexander & BaldwinSugar plantations in Hawaii expanded during the territory period. Some diversified to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the "Big Five" corporations.

Attack on Pearl Harbor

USS Arizona during the attack on Pearl HarborMain article: Attack on Pearl HarborPearl Harbor was attacked on 7 December 1941 by the Empire of Japan, triggering the United States' entry into World War II. Most Americans had never heard of Pearl Harbor, even though it had been used by the US Navy since the Spanish-American War. Hawaii was put under martial law until the end of the war.

Democratic Revolution of 1954

Main article: Democratic Revolution of 1954 (Hawaii)The Democratic Revolution of 1954 was a nonviolent revolution of industry-wide strikes,protests, and other civil disobedience. In the territorial elections of 1954 the reign of the Hawaii Republican Party in the legislature came to an abrupt end, as they were replaced by theDemocratic Party of Hawaii. Democrats lobbied for statehood and gained the governorship for 40 years, from 1962 to 2002. The Revolution also unionized the labor force, hastening the decline of the plantations.

Statehood

All islands voted at least 93% in favor of statehood in 1959President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admission Act on March 18, 1959 which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, it was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959, with a population of about 423,620 (85%) Americans and foreigners and 76,620 (15%) Native Hawaiians.

Modern sovereignty movements

Main article: Hawaiian sovereignty movementFor many Native Hawaiians, the manner in which Hawaii became a US possession is a bitter part of its history. Hawaii Territory governors and judges were direct political appointees of the US president. Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule Party and are now using statehood as a path toward more self-government. After years of cultural and societal repression and along with other self-determination movements worldwide the 1960s is thought to have seen the rebirth of Hawaiian culture and identity in the Hawaiian Renaissance.With the support of Senators Daniel Inouye and Daniel Akaka of Hawaii, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "Apology Resolution" (US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by PresidentBill Clinton on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated.[15][16]Senator Akaka proposed what is called the Akaka Bill to extend federal recognition to those ofNative Hawaiian ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American tribes.[17]

NAUD POLLAT Year: 1788 - 1861Place: Vatilieu, 38470 Isère, Rhône-Alpes, FranceNAUD POLLAT - Commune : Vatilieu (France)

NAUD-POLLAT en France entre 1891 et 1915;

Origin of the name NAUD+POLLAT.

Naud family history for the French Origin






In some Israeli cities, street signs identify Esperanto's creator and give his birth and death dates, but refer to him solely by his Jewish name Eliezer (a variant of which, El'azar, is the origin of Lazarus). Zamenhof is honored as a deity by the Japanese religion Oomoto, which encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers. Also, a genus of lichen has been named Zamenhofia rosei in his honour.[17]His birthday, 15 December, is celebrated annually as Zamenhof Day by users of Esperanto. On 15 December 2009, Esperanto's green-starred flag flew on the Google search web page, in a commemorative Google Doodle to mark Zamenhof's 150th birthday.[18]The house of the Zamenhof family, dedicated to Ludwik Zamenhof and the Białystok Esperanto Centre, are sites of the Jewish Heritage Trail in Białystok, which was opened in June 2008 by volunteers at The University of Białystok Foundation.[19Eliezer Zamenhof street inTel Aviv: the street sign in Hebrew and Esperanto states he is the creator of the international language Esperanto.L. L. Zamenhof Statue in Prilep, Republic of MacedoniaZamenhof was born under the Russian rule and therefore his name was first recorded in the Russian as Лейзер Заменго́в Leyzer Zamengov.[10] "Zamenhof" is pronounced/ˈzɑːmɨnhɒf, -nɒv, -nɒf/ in English, [zaˈmenhof] in Esperanto. In Yiddish: אֱלִיעֶזֶר "לײזער" לֵוִי זאַמענהאָף (Eliezer "Leyzer" Levi Zamenhof), in German: Ludwig (aka Levi) Lazarus Samenhof, inHebrew: אליעזר לודוויג (לייזער) (לאזארו לודוביקו) זמנהוף‎, in Russian: Лю́двик Ла́зарь "Лейзер" Ма́ркович Заменго́в (Lyudvik Lazar' "Leizer" Markovich Zamengov).Zamenhof's parents gave him the Hebrew name Eliezer, which appeared on his birth certificate in its Yiddish form Leyzer. In his adolescence he used both Leyzer and the Russian equivalent Lazar (the form Lazarus is often used in English texts). In some Russian documents Lazar was followed by the patronymic Markovich.While at university, Zamenhof began using the Russian name Lyudovik (often transcribed Ludovic; in English the form Ludwig is also used) in place of Lazar. When his brother Leon became a doctor and started signing his name "Dr L. Zamenhof",[11] Ludwik reclaimed his birth name Lazar and from 1901 signed his name "Dr L. L. Zamenhof". The two L's do not seem to have specifically represented either name, and the order Ludwik Lazar is a modern convention.Zamenhof may have chosen the name Ludwik in honor of Francis Lodwick (or Lodowyck), who in 1652 had published an early conlang proposal.[12]His family name was originally written Samenhof, in German orthography; the spelling Zamenhof reflects the romanization of the Yiddish spelling זאַמענהאָף, as well as the Esperanto and Polish spellings.Lidia Zamenhof in particular took a keen interest in Esperanto, and as an adult became a teacher of the language, traveling through Europe and to America to teach classes in it. Through her friendship with Martha Root, Lidia accepted Bahá'u'lláh and became a member of the Bahá'í faith. As one of its social principles, the Bahá'í faith teaches that an auxiliary world language should be selected by the representatives of all the world's nations. Zamenhof's grandson, Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof (Adam's son), has lived in France since the 1960s.Zamenhof and his wife Klara raised three children, a son, Adam, and two daughters, Sofia andLidia. All three died in the Holocaust.[9]In 1879, Zamenhof wrote the first grammar of the Yiddish language, which he published in part years later in the Yiddish magazine Lebn un visnshaft.[7] The complete original Russian text of this manuscript with parallel Esperanto translation was only published in 1982 (translated byAdolf Holzhaus in L. Zamenhof, provo de gramatiko de novjuda lingvo, Helsinki, p. 9-36). In this work, not only does he provide a review of Yiddish grammar, but also proposes its transition to the Latin script and other orthographic innovations. In the same period, Zamenhof wrote some other works in Yiddish, including perhaps the first survey of Yiddish poetics (see p. 50 in the above-cited book).In 1882, a wave of pogroms in the Russian empire motivated Zamenhof to take part in the early Zionist movement, the Hibbat Zion.[8] He left the movement in 1887, and in 1901 published a statement in Russian with the title Hillelism, in which he argued that the Zionist project could not solve the problems of the Jewish people.[8]In 1914, he politely declined an invitation to join a new organization of Jewish Esperantists, the TEHA. In his letter to the organizers, he said: "I am profoundly convinced that every nationalism offers humanity only the greatest unhappiness... It is true that the nationalism of oppressed peoples – as a natural self-defensive reaction – is much more excusable than the nationalism of peoples who oppress; but, if the nationalism of the strong is ignoble, the nationalism of the weak is imprudent; both give birth to and support each other..."[8] Among the many works of Zamenhof, translated into Esperanto is the Hebrew Bible or the Old Testament.Zamenhof died in Warsaw on 14 April 1917, and is buried in the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery.Born on January 28, 1947 in Pazardzhik, Ivan Minekov (Bulgarian: Иван Минеков) is one of the most appreciated contemporary Bulgarian sculptors.By 1878, his project Lingwe uniwersala was almost finished. However, Zamenhof was too young then to publish his work. Soon after graduation from school he began to study medicine, first in Moscow, and later in Warsaw. In 1885, Zamenhof graduated from a university and began his practice as a doctor in Veisiejai and after 1886 as an ophthalmologist in Płock and Vienna. While healing people there he continued to work on his project of an international language.For two years he tried to raise funds to publish a booklet describing the language until he received the financial help from his future wife's father. In 1887, the book titled Международный язык. Предисловие и полный учебник (International language: Foreword and complete textbook) was published in Russian[6] under the pseudonym "Doktoro Esperanto" (Doctor Hopeful). Zamenhof initially called his language "Lingvo internacia" (international language), but those who learned it began to call it Esperanto after his pseudonym, and this soon became the official name for the language. For Zamenhof this language, far from being merely a communication tool, was a way of promoting the peaceful coexistence of different people and cultures.[2]Zamenhof was born on 15 December (3 December OS) 1859 in the town of Białystok in theRussian Partition (north-eastern Poland) in the age of national insurections. His parents were of Lithuanian Jewish descent, and his wife was born in Kaunas, in one of the biggest Jewish centres of the time. He stated that his native language was Russian,[3] but he also spoke Yiddish andPolish;[4] it was Polish that became the native language of his children. His father was a teacher of German, and he also spoke that language fluently. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek,Hebrew, and English, and had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.In addition to the Yiddish-speaking Jewish majority, the population of Białystok was made up ofPoles and Belarusians, with smaller groups of Russians, Germans, Lipka Tatars and others. Zamenhof was saddened and frustrated by the many quarrels among these groups. He supposed that the main reason for the hate and prejudice lay in the mutual misunderstanding caused by the lack of one common language. If such a language existed, Zamenhof postulated, it could play the role of a neutral communication tool between people of different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds.As a student at secondary school in Warsaw, Zamenhof made attempts to create some kind of international language with a grammar that was very rich, but also very complex. When he later studied English, he decided that the international language must have a simpler grammar. Apart from his parents' native languages Russian and Yiddish and his adopted language Polish, his linguistics attempts were also aided by his mastering of German, a good passive understanding of Latin, Hebrew and French, and a basic knowledge of Greek, English and Italian.[5]Ludwik Lazarus Zamenhof (15 December 1859 – 14 April 1917)[1] was the creator of Esperanto, the world's most successful constructed language,[2] and a physician by profession. He grew up fascinated by the idea of a world without war, and believed that this could happen with the help of a new international language which he first developed in 1873 while still in schoolEsperantoWriting systemLatin (Esperanto alphabet)Esperanto BrailleSigned form(s)SignunoSourcesVocabulary from Romance and Germanic languages; phonology from Slavic languagesWilliam Auld (6 November 1924 – 11 September 2006) was a Scottish poet, author, translator and magazine editor who wrote chiefly in Esperanto. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1999, 2004, and 2006 making him the first and only person to be nominated for works in Esperanto.[1] His magnum opus, La infana raso (The Infant Race), is a long poem that, in Auld's words, explores "the role of the human race in time and in the cosmos," and is based heavily on The Cantos by Ezra Pound.Auld began to learn Esperanto in 1937 but only became active in the propagation of the language in 1947, and from then on wrote many works in Esperanto. He edited various magazines andreviews, including Esperanto en Skotlando (1949–1955), Esperanto (1955–1958, 1961–1962),Monda Kulturo (1962–1963), Norda Prismo (1968–1972), La Brita Esperantisto (1973–1999) andFonto (1980–1987). He was the Vice-President of the World Esperanto Association (1977–1980), president of the Academy of Esperanto (1979–1983), and honorary president of the EsperantoPEN Centre.In 2001, he donated his large personal collection of Esperanto literature to the National Library of Scotland, where it is now housed.






Hawaii’s largest synagogue, following the election of a new board president, is looking to oust Peter Schaktman, their rabbi of seven years, allegedly for his sexual orientation. In light of the recent scuffles at board meetings, “rabbi wars” and the dwindling number of attending families (60 out of 230 defecting in the past year)that have been reported at Temple Emanu-El, Hawaii’s Jewish community may be waxing nostalgic for simpler days.The history of Jews in Hawaii is purported to have origins as far back as 1798 when the log of whaling ship Neptune noted that a Hawaiian king came aboard and brought a Jewish cook with him. But since that cook obviously didn’t sell the Hawaiian’s on gefilte fish as opposed to ahi poke, the migration of Jews to the Islands in earnest is generally considered to have begun in the mid-1800s, when Jewish merchants began establishing themselves as suppliers to the plantations.The political climate of Europe in the early 1800s and the allure of making a good living as merchants to the Pacific whaling fleet first brought Jews in Hawaii. But aside from the occasional Jewish marriage or funeral, there isn’t evidence of an established population or organized worship groups from that tiime.

Future Telling

Things got interesting when a Elias Abraham Rosenberg arrived in 1886 from San Francisco. A Russian-born eccentric Jewish immigrant said to have had a long white beard, Rosenberg only spent about a year in Hawaii. But he did leave behind a curious reputation and received royal appointments to several positions (including that of kahuna-kilokilo, or, royal fortune-teller). In his book, History of the Later Years of the Hawaiian Monarchy, Hawaii historian, William Dewitt Alexander penned the first mention in Hawaii’s history of the man, saying in November of 1986, at the 50th birthday of King David Kalakaua, “A fortune teller by the name of Rosenberg acquired great influence with the King.”In just one short year, the Jewish soothsayer, said to have referred to himself as “Rabbi Rosenberg,” became a close confidante to the King.“Some people say he was a Rabbi, but it was really unknown,” says UH–Manoa historian and professor Robert Littman. But while Kalakaua was amused by the chants and even took lessons in Hebrew from his new sage, many of the King’s advisors viewed Rosenberg as somewhat of an opportunistic pest, perhaps even a con artist of sorts.“We do know he was a fortune teller and sold lottery tickets (in San Francisco),” said Littman. “But he seems to have been well-learned in Hebrew, the Bible and Jewish law.”The King took such a shine to him that at one point Rosenberg was actually granted a room in ‘Iolani Palace for fortune-telling and drinking sessions which the King frequently took part in. Kalakaua was, at the time, facing deep political unrest leading up to what became known as the “Bayonet Constitution,” which stripped him of much of his power.Before his hasty and unexplained retreat from the islands in 1887, Rosenberg gifted the King an impressive Torah scroll and a pointer (known as a yad). The Torah–known now as the Kalakaua Torah–was later frequently lent out to the Jewish community by the royal family. Before, there was no Torah available during services. In fact, Jewish religious practice was so lax that in 1898, when the first recorded communal Jewish service was held at Progress Hall in Honolulu, it was conducted by various laymen.

Post-War

At the beginning of the 20th Century, the Jewish pouplation in Honolulu began to falter. Asians began dominating the merchant trade, and the population of already-established Jews in the region aged. Even after The Hebrew Congregation of Hawaii came about in 1901, the population remained in serious decline. It was the growth of the military in Hawaii and the presence of its Jewish members that revived the community.Post-WWII was the most prolific time of accomplishments by the local Jewish community. The Jewish Welfare Board was established, as was a Jewish Community Center on Young Street which served as Honolulu’s first synagogue. In 1942, the Honolulu Jewish Community established the Hebrew Burial Society and obtained a section of O’ahu Cemetery for use as a Jewish burial site. “The real wave of Jewish population first started in World War II,” notes Littman. “There were a certain amount of Jewish soldiers who stayed here.”Hawaii has seen several notable Jewish residents over the years, among them the prominent civil rights attorney Kirk Cashmere, a historian and champion of organized Judaism in Hawaii who had the yearly Kirk Cashmere Jewish Film Festival (held at Doris Duke Theatre) named after him. Then there’s businessman Harry Weinberg, for whom the eponymous philanthropic foundation is named, and dance virtuoso Arthur Murray. And let’s not forget Linda Lingle, who was Mayor of Maui County–which has the second largest Jewish community after O’ahu–before later becoming the governor of Hawaii, and the first Jewish one at that.The first mention of Jews in connection with Hawaii was in 1798, when a sailor on the whaling ship Neptune recorded in the ships log that the Hawaiian king had come aboard and brought a Jewish cook with him! Jewish merchants began arriving in Hawaii between 1850-1900 and established themselves as suppliers to the sugar plantations, as well as owners of coffee plantations. A Torah which had been given to King Kalakaua in the 1880s was frequently borrowed from the Kawananakoa family for use in services.In 1901, 40 residents formed the first congregation, the Hebrew Congregation of Hawaii, which lasted about six years. After World War I the Jewish Welfare Board sent Alexander and Jennie Linczer to establish a JWB Center in their home. They were later joined by Max Goldman and the Usheroff family as leaders of the Jewish community. The origins of an organized Temple Emanu-El date back to 1938 when 35 Jewish families on Oahu formed the Honolulu Jewish Community.In 1939, in cooperation with the Jewish Welfare Board, a small chapel on Young Street was leased and converted into a Jewish Community Center (JCC), which also served as Honolulu's first permanent synagogue. During World War II, the JCC continued as the focal point of the Jewish community with religious services conducted by military chaplains stationed in Hawaii. In 1942 the Honolulu Jewish Community established a Hebrew Burial Society consecrating a section of the Oahu Cemetery in Nuuanu for use as a Jewish cemetery.In 1947, the JWB sent Rabbi Emanuel Kumin to Hawaii to serve as its director and the HJC also hired him to serve the congregation on a part-time basis. Sisterhood was organized, and the religious school was begun. From the early 1950s to the present, the congregation grew from 60 to about 300 members. During this time significant changes occurred: the congregation affiliated with the Reform movement, changed its name to Temple Emanu-El, built a sanctuary and education building, hired full-time rabbis and directors of its religious school.The Kalakaua Torah ScrollThis Sefer Torah (Pentateuch) and Pointer were brought to Hawaii in 1886 by Elias Abraham Rosenberg who came here from San Francisco. Although the rabbinical lists do not contain his name, he called himself a rabbi. He appears to have ingratiated himself with King David Kalakaua and became a royal soothsayer, of sorts, preparing horoscopes and prophecies for the King as well as telling him Bible stories and teaching him Hebrew.When Rosenberg hastily returned to San Francisco in 1887, because of political unrest in Hawaii, he left the Torah and Pointer with Kalakaua for safe-keeping. When Rabbi Julius J. Nodel saw the Scroll, he researched it and confirmed that it was, indeed, the Kalakaua Torah Scroll. The pointer and scroll, along with other artifacts of King Kalakaua, eventually came into the possession of the Kawananakoa family (descendants of Kaumualii, king of Kauai) through Queen Kapiolani. During the 1930's and 40's -- the times are uncertain -- the family graciously lent the scroll from time to time to the Honolulu Jewish community for High Holy Day services. Through her grandmother, Princess Abigail Campbell Kawananakoa (1882-1945), the pointer came into the possession of Abigail Kekuaulike Kawananakoa.Through a friend of hers it came into the possession of Rabbi Roy Rosenberg of Temple Emanu-El. At the dedicatory services of Temple Emanu-El on May 29, 1960, Rabbi Rosenberg also dedicated the pointer to the temple. It is believed that, subsequently, the Kalakaua Torah also came into the possession of Temple Emanu-El from the Kawananakoa family.Linda Lingle (born Linda Cutter; June 4, 1953) is an American politician, who was the 6th Governor of Hawaii from 2002 until 2010. She was the first Republican elected governor of Hawaii since the departure of William F. Quinn in 1962. Lingle was also the first female governorof Hawaii; first Jewish governor of Hawaii; first county mayor elected governor of Hawaii; and the first governor of Hawaii not to have any children. Prior to her gubernatorial administration, Lingle served as Maui County mayor, council member, and chair of the Hawaii Republican Party.Lingle was born Linda Cutter in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1953, the daughter of Mildred and Richard Cutter.[3] Lingle moved with her parents to Southern California when she was 12. She graduated from Birmingham High School in Lake Balboa, California (at that time, part of Van Nuys), then received her bachelor's degree in journalism cum laude from California State University, Northridge, in 1975.Soon after that, she followed her father to Hawaii, working first in Honolulu as a public information officer for the Teamsters and Hotel Workers Union. Later, she moved to Molokai, where she started the Molokai Free Press, a community newspaper.[4]Van Nuys /vænˈnaɪz/ is a neighborhood in the City of Los Angeles, California, within the San Fernando Valley. Van Nuys, like other San Fernando Valley neighborhoods, is often mistaken as an independent city separate from the City of Los Angeles. With more than a hundred thousand inhabitants, it is noted for its youthful median age and the large percentage of residents who were born abroad, as well as the high rate of families headed by single parents. A high percentage of adults have never completed high school.[1]Van Nuys has many notable locations, including Van Nuys Airport, and a number of prominent people have lived in the city. There are three parks and a senior center. Eleven public schools—including two high schools—and eight private schools are situated within Van Nuys. The neighborhood also hosts a public library branch, as well as a large number of government offices.Some areas have broken away from Van Nuys and have become identified with neighboring districts.Marilyn Monroename Mortenson is listed as her surname on the birth certificate, ... her aunts, Ana Lower, who lived in the Van Nuys area of Los Angeles CountyArnold Schwarzenegger(surname)small yes date March 2012 birthname Arnold AloisRobert RedfordScottish, and Scots-Irish ancestry (his surname originates in England. Redford's family moved toVan Nuys, California
Esperanto



Korean immigration to Hawaii has been constant since the early 20th century. There have been two distinct points at which immigration has peaked: the first in 1903, and the second in 1965. On January 13, 2003, George W. Bush made a special proclamation honoring the Centennial of Korean Immigration to the United States, recognizing the contributions of Korean Americans to the nation.The first large group of Korean immigrants arrived in the United States on January 13, 1903. TheKorean Empire had issued its first English-language passports to these immigrants the previous year.[2] They travelled on the RMS Gaelic and landed in Hawaii. The passengers were a diverse group with various ages and backgrounds. Among the group were fifty-six men recruited as labourers for sugar plantations located on various islands in the Territory of Hawaii, as well as twenty-one women and twenty-five children. Within two years of the first arrival of Korean immigrants, the number of Koreans who had migrated to Hawaii had grown to more than 7,000.[3]The first large group of Korean Immigrants settled in America between 1901 and 1905. Between those years 7,226 immigrants, including 6,048 men, 637 women, and 541 children, came on 65 trips. Most of the early immigrants of that period had some contract with American missionaries in Korea. For some Western-oriented Korean intellectuals, immigrating to the United States was considered useful, in part, to help them in the modernization of their homeland. Consequently, the recruiter for labourers for the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association (HSPA), David Deshler, had no trouble finding Koreans from a wide range of social classes willing to sail to HawaiiJay Dee "B.J." Penn (born December 13, 1978 in Kailua, Hawaii) is a Korean-American professional mixed martial arts (MMA) fighter and Jiu-Jitsu practitioner, former Ultimate Fighting Championship lightweight champion.Penn was born to Jay Dee Penn, an Irish American and Loraine Shin, a third generation Korean-American.[11] At the age of seventeen, Penn began training in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu after being introduced to it by his neighbor, Tom Callos.[Polgár was born on 23 July 1976 in Budapest, to a Hungarian Jewish family.[4] Polgár and her two older sisters, Grandmaster Susan and International Master Sofia, were part of an educational experiment carried out by their father László Polgár, in an attempt to prove that children could make exceptional achievements if trained in a specialist subject from a very early age.[5]"Geniuses are made, not born", was László's thesis. He and his wife Klára educated their three daughters at home, with chess as the specialist subject. László also taught his three daughters the international language Esperanto. They received resistance from Hungarian authorities as home-schooling was not a "socialist" approach. They also received criticism at the time from some western commentators for depriving the sisters of a normal childhood. However, by most reports the girls appeared happy and well-adjusted.[citation needed]Members of Polgár's family perished in the Holocaust, and her grandmother was a survivor ofAuschwitz concentration camp.[216]In August 2000, Polgár married Hungarian veterinary surgeon Gusztáv Font.[125][217] They have two children, a boy named Oliver and a girl named Hanna.[218] While Judit remained in Hungary, the rest of her family eventually emigrated: Sofia and her parents to Israel and later to Canada, and Susan to the United States.[43]Its name derives from Doktoro Esperanto("Esperanto" translates as "one who hopes"), the pseudonym under which L. L. Zamenhofpublished the first book detailing Esperanto, the Unua Libro, on July 26, 1887. Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy-to-learn, politically neutral language that would transcend nationality and foster peace and international understanding between people with different languages.Estimates of Esperanto speakers range from 100,000 to 2,000,000 active or fluent speakers worldwide, including perhaps a thousand native speakers who learned Esperanto from birth as one of their native languages. Lernu, the most famous online learning platform of Esperanto that teaches in 41 languages, reported in July 2013 over 150,000 registered users, and has between 150,000 and 200,000 monthly visitors.[4] Esperanto has a notable presence in over a hundred countries. Usage is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America.[5]All the personal documents issued by the World Service Authority, including the World Passport, are written in Esperanto, together with English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic and Chinese.[It has been described as "a language lexically predominantly Romanic, morphologically intensivelyagglutinative, and to a certain degree isolating in character".[26] The phonology, grammar,vocabulary, and semantics are based on the Indo-European languages spoken in Europe. Thephonemic inventory is essentially Slavic, as is much of the semantics, while the vocabularyderives primarily from the Romance languages, with a lesser contribution from the Germanic languages and minor contributions from Slavic languages and Greek. Pragmatics and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof's original documents were influenced by the native languages of early speakers, primarily Russian, Polish, German, and French.Pronunciation is covered above; the Esperanto letter j is pronounced like English y.)Esperanto:«En multaj lokoj de Ĉinio estis temploj de la drako-reĝo. Dum trosekeco oni preĝis en la temploj, ke la drako-reĝo donu pluvon al la homa mondo. Tiam drako estis simbolo de la supernatura estaĵo. Kaj pli poste, ĝi fariĝis prapatro de la plej altaj regantoj kaj simbolis la absolutan aŭtoritaton de feŭda imperiestro. La imperiestro pretendis, ke li estas filo de la drako. Ĉiuj liaj vivbezonaĵoj portis la nomon drako kaj estis ornamitaj per diversaj drakofiguroj. Nun ĉie en Ĉinio videblas drako-ornamentaĵoj, kaj cirkulas legendoj pri drakoj.»English translation:In many places in China, there were temples of the dragon-king. During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragon-king would give rain to the human world. At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural. Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolised the absolute authority of the feudal emperor. The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon. All of his personal possessions carried the name "dragon" and were decorated with various dragon figures. Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China and legends about dragons circulate.The Senate of Brazil passed a bill in 2009 that would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in public schools, although mandatory if there is demand for it. As of 2012 the bill is still under consideration by the Chamber of Deputies.[Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the amount of time required for other languages.[39] Claude Piron, a psychologist formerly at the University of Geneva and Chinese–English–Russian–Spanish translator for the United Nations, argued that Esperanto is far more intuitive than many ethnic languages. "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes [and] differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns. [...] The same neuropsychological law [—called by] Jean Piaget generalizing assimilation—applies to word formation as well as to grammar."[40]Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and central countries of Europe; in China, Korea, Japan, and Iran within Asia;[19] in Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico in the Americas;[54] and in Togo in Africa.[55]An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by Sidney S. Culbert, a retiredpsychology professor at the University of Washington and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto atForeign Service Level 3, "professionally proficient" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.).[56] Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of over one million speakers, published annually in the World Almanac and Book of Facts. Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff.[57] Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results.Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of Cologne. Van Dijk finds only 30 fluent speakers in that city, and similarly smaller-than-expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members.[53]The US Army has published military phrase books in Esperanto,[23] to be used in war games bymock enemy forces. In the summer of 1924, the American Radio Relay League adopted Esperanto as its official international auxiliary language, and hoped that the language would be used by radio amateurs in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible.In Germany, there was additional motivation to persecute Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish. In his work, Mein Kampf, Adolf Hitler specifically mentioned Esperanto as an example of a language that could be used by an International Jewish Conspiracy once they achieved world domination.[16] Esperantists were killed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out for murder.[17] The efforts of some Esperantists to expel Jewish colleagues and align themselves with the Reich were finally futile and Esperanto was forbidden in 1936. Esperantists in German concentration camps taught the language to fellow prisoners,[18] telling guards they were teaching Italian, the language of one of Germany's Axis allies.[citation needed]In Imperial Japan, the left-wing of the Japanese Esperanto movement was persecuted, but its leaders were careful enough not to give the impression to the government that the Esperantists were revolutionaries, which proved a successful strategy.[19]In the early years of the Soviet Union, Esperanto was given a measure of government support, and the Soviet Esperanto Association was an officially recognized organization.[20] However, in 1937, Stalin reversed this policy. He denounced Esperanto as "the language of spies" and had Esperantists exiled or executed. The use of Esperanto was effectively banned until 1956.[20]Fascist Italy, however, allowed the use of Esperanto finding its phonology similar to that of Italian and publishing some touristic material in the language.After the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain persecuted the Anarchists and Catalan nationalistsamong whom the use of Esperanto was extensive[21] but in the 1950s, the Esperanto movement was tolerated again.The autonomous territory of Neutral Moresnet, between what is today Belgium and Germany, had a sizable proportion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and multiethnic population. There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language.However, time was running out for the tiny territory. Neither Belgium nor Prussia (now within theGerman Empire) had ever surrendered its original claim to it. Around 1900, Germany in particular was taking a more aggressive stance towards the territory and was accused of sabotage and of obstructing the administrative process in order to force the issue. It was the First World War, however, that was the catalyst that brought about the end of neutrality. On August 4, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, leaving Moresnet at first "an oasis in a desert of destruction".[15] In 1915, the territory was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, without international recognition.After the Great War, there was a proposal for the League of Nations to accept Esperanto as their working language, following a report by Nitobe Inazō, an official delegate of League of Nations during the 13th World Congress of Esperanto in Prague. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat, effectively wielding his veto power to block the decision. However, two years later, the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. For this reason, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement.Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof, anophthalmologist of mixed cultural heritage from Białystok, then part of the Russian Empire. According to Zamenhof, he created this language to foster harmony between people from different countries. His feelings and the situation in Białystok may be gleaned from an extract from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:[13]"The place where I was born and spent my childhood gave direction to all my future struggles. In Białystok the inhabitants were divided into four distinct elements: Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews; each of these spoke their own language and looked on all the others as enemies. In such a town a sensitive nature feels more acutely than elsewhere the misery caused by language division and sees at every step that the diversity of languages is the first, or at least the most influential, basis for the separation of the human family into groups of enemies. I was brought up as an idealist; I was taught that all people were brothers, while outside in the street at every step I felt that there were no people, only Russians, Poles, Germans, Jews and so on. This was always a great torment to my infant mind, although many people may smile at such an 'anguish for the world' in a child. Since at that time I thought that 'grown-ups' were omnipotent, so I often said to myself that when I grew up I would certainly destroy this evil."—L. L. Zamenhof, in a letter to Nikolai Borovko, ca. 1895After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into Esperanto as well as writing original prose and verse, the first book of Esperanto grammar was published inWarsaw in July 1887. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades, at first primarily in the Russian Empire and Central Europe, then in other parts of Europe, the Americas,China, and Japan. In the early years, speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and periodicals, but in 1905 the first world congress of Esperanto speakers was held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. Since then world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars. Since the Second World War, they have been attended by an average of over 2,000 and up to 6,000 people.Zamenhof's name for the language was simply Internacia Lingvo ("International Language").[14]Its name derives from Doktoro Esperanto("Esperanto" translates as "one who hopes"), the pseudonym under which L. L. Zamenhofpublished the first book detailing Esperanto, the Unua Libro, on July 26, 1887. Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy-to-learn, politically neutral language that would transcend nationality and foster peace and international understanding between people with different languages.Estimates of Esperanto speakers range from 100,000 to 2,000,000 active or fluent speakers worldwide, including perhaps a thousand native speakers who learned Esperanto from birth as one of their native languages. Lernu, the most famous online learning platform of Esperanto that teaches in 41 languages, reported in July 2013 over 150,000 registered users, and has between 150,000 and 200,000 monthly visitors.[4] Esperanto has a notable presence in over a hundred countries. Usage is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America.[5]Members of Polgár's family perished in the Holocaust, and her grandmother was a survivor ofAuschwitz concentration camp.[216]In August 2000, Polgár married Hungarian veterinary surgeon Gusztáv Font.[125][217] They have two children, a boy named Oliver and a girl named Hanna.[218] While Judit remained in Hungary, the rest of her family eventually emigrated: Sofia and her parents to Israel and later to Canada, and Susan to the United States.[43]Polgár was born on 23 July 1976 in Budapest, to a Hungarian Jewish family.[4] Polgár and her two older sisters, Grandmaster Susan and International Master Sofia, were part of an educational experiment carried out by their father László Polgár, in an attempt to prove that children could make exceptional achievements if trained in a specialist subject from a very early age.[5]"Geniuses are made, not born", was László's thesis. He and his wife Klára educated their three daughters at home, with chess as the specialist subject. László also taught his three daughters the international language Esperanto. They received resistance from Hungarian authorities as home-schooling was not a "socialist" approach. They also received criticism at the time from some western commentators for depriving the sisters of a normal childhood. However, by most reports the girls appeared happy and well-adjusted.[citation needed]